Aldosterone

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Aldosterone

Identifiers
CAS number	[52-39-1]
MeSH	Aldosterone
SMILES	OCC(=O)[C@H]4CC[C@@H]2[C@@]4 (C[C@H](O)[C@@H]1C3[C@H](C)CC (=O)/C=C3/CC[C@H]12)C=O
Properties
Molecular formula	C₂₁H₂₈O₅
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa) Infobox disclaimer and references

Aldosterone is a steroid hormone (mineralocorticoid family) produced by the outer-section (zona glomerulosa) of the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland to regulate sodium and potassium balance in the blood.

It was first isolated by Simpson and Tait in 1953.^[1]

1 Synthesis
2 Function
3 Location of receptors
4 Stimulation of synthesis
5 Control of aldosterone release in the kidney
6 Additional images
7 References
8 External links

The corticosteroids are synthesized from cholesterol within the adrenal cortex. Most steroidogenic reactions are catalysed by enzymes of the cytochrome P450 family. They are located within the mitochondria and require adrenodoxin as a cofactor (except 21-hydroxylase and 17α-hydroxylase).

Aldosterone and corticosterone share the first part of their biosynthetic pathway. The last part is either mediated by the aldosterone synthase (for aldosterone) or by the 11β-hydroxylase (for corticosterone). These enzymes are nearly identical (they share 11β-hydroxylation and 18-hydroxylation functions). But aldosterone synthase is also able to perform a 18-oxidation. Moreover, aldosterone synthase is found within the zona glomerulosa at the outer edge of the adrenal cortex; 11β-hydroxylase is found in the zona fasciculata and reticularis.

Note: aldosterone synthase is absent in other sections of the adrenal gland.

It is the sole endogenous member of the class of mineralocorticoids in human (corticosterone in rodent). At the late distal tubule & collecting duct, aldosterone has two main actions:

Acting on mineralocorticoid receptors (MR) on principal cells in the distal convoluted tubule of the kidney nephron, it increases the permeability of their apical (luminal) membrane to potassium and sodium and activates their basolateral Na⁺/K⁺ pumps, stimulating ATP hydrolysis, reabsorbing sodium (Na⁺) ions and water into the blood, and secreting potassium (K⁺) ions into the urine.
Aldosterone also stimulates H⁺ secretion by intercalated cells in the collecting duct, regulating plasma bicarbonate (HCO3⁻) levels and its acid/base balance.^[2]

Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of about 2% of filtered sodium in the kidneys, which is nearly equal to the entire sodium content in human blood under normal GFR (glomerular filtration rate).^[3]

Unlike neuroreceptors, classic steroid receptors are intracellularly located. The aldosterone/MR receptor complex binds on the DNA to specific hormone response element, which leads to gene specific transcription.

Some of the transcribed genes are crucial for transepithelial sodium transport, including the three subunits of the epithelial sodium channel, the Na⁺/K⁺ pumps and their regulatory proteins serum and glucocorticoid-induced kinase, and channel-inducing factor respectively.

Aldosterone synthesis is stimulated by several factors:

by increased plasma angiotensin II, ACTH, or potassium levels, which are present in proportion to plasma sodium deficiencies. (The increased potassium level works to regulate aldosterone synthesis by depolarizing the cells in the zona glomerulosa, which opens the voltage-dependent calcium channels.)

by plasma acidosis.

by the stretch receptors located in the atria of the heart. If decreased blood pressure is detected, the adrenal gland is stimulated by these stretch receptors to release aldosterone, which increases sodium reabsorption from the urine, sweat and the gut. This causes increased osmolarity in the extracellular fluid which will eventually return blood pressure toward normal.

The secretion of aldosterone has a diurnal rhythm.^[4]

The role of the renin-angiotensin system
The role of sympathetic nerves
The role of baroreceptors
The role of the juxtaglomerular apparatus
The plasma concentration of potassium

Corticosteroid biosynthetic pathway in rat

Steroidogenesis

Corticosterone

^ Williams JS, Williams GH. 50th anniversary of aldosterone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Jun;88(6):2364-72. Full text. PMID 12788829.
^ Brenner & Rector's The Kidney, 7th ed. Saunders, 2004.
^ Sherwood, L. Human Physiology, from Cells to Systems, 4th Ed., Brooks/Cole, 2001
^ Hurwitz S, Cohen R, & Williams GH. Diurnal variation of aldosterone and plasma renin activity: timing relation to melatonin and cortisol and consistency after prolonged bed rest. 2004 J Appl Physiol 96: 1406-1414. Full Text