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Ali
Commander of the Faithful (Arabic: Amir al-Mu'minin)
This mosque near Al Najaf, Iraq, is believed by Shias to house the tombstone of Ali
Reign	656 – 661[1]
Full name	‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib
Titles	Father of Hasan (Arabic: Abu Al-Hasan) Father of Dust/Soil (Arabic: Abu Turab) Murtada (“One Who Is Chosen and Contented”) Lion of God (Arabic: Asad-ullah) Lion (Arabic: Heydar)[1] First Ali (Turkish: Birinci Ali)
Born	March 17, 599(599-03-17)[2] or March 17, 600(600-03-17)[1]
	Mecca[1][2]
Died	February 28, 661 (aged 61)
	Kufa[1][2]
Buried	Imam Ali Mosque, Najaf, Iraq
Predecessor	Uthman
Successor	Muawiyah I
Wife/wives	Fatimah[1]
Issue	Hassan Husayn (See:Descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib )
Royal House	Ahl al-Bayt Banu Hashim
Father	Abu Talib
Mother	Fatima bint Asad

Ali ibn Abi Talib (‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib) (Arabic: علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب) (Thirteenth of Rajab, 24 BH – Twenty-first of Ramadan, 40 AH; approximately, March 17, 599^[2] or 600^[1]- February 28, 661)^[2] was the cousin, son-in-law and one of the Ahl al-Bayt of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Shi'a Muslims glorify Ali as the first Imam and consider him and his descendants as the rightful successors to Muhammad, the only legitimate religious and political leaders of the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims revere him as the fourth and final Rashidun (Rightly Guided Sunni Caliph), reigning from 656 to 661. This disagreement resulted in the Muslim community being split into the Sunni and Shi'ite branches.^[1][3]

Ali was born in Mecca. His father was Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and his mother was Fatima bint Asad^[1] but he was raised in the household of Muhammad. When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation, Ali, then only about ten years old, believed him and professed Islam. He was the first male to accept Islam.^[4][5] Ali stood firmly in support of Muhammad during the years of persecution of Muslims in Mecca.^[6]

Ali migrated to Medina shortly after Muhammad. There Muhammad told Ali that he had been ordered by God to give his daughter, Fatimah, to Ali in marriage.^[1] For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service, leading parties of warriors on battles, and carrying messages and orders. With the exception of the Battle of Tabuk, Ali took part in all the battles fought for Islam during this time.

After the assassination of the third Caliph, Uthman Ibn Affan, the Companions of Muhammad in Medina chose Ali to be the new Caliph. ^[7] He encountered defiance and civil war (First Fitna) during his reign. Finally while Ali was praying in the mosque of Kufa, a Khawarij assassinated him with a strike of a poison-coated sword. Ali died on the 21st of Ramadan in the city of Kufa in 661 CE. ^[8]

Muslims greatly respect Ali for his knowledge, belief, honesty, his unbending devotion to Islam, his deep loyalty to Muhammad, his equal treatment of all Muslims and his generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies. In addition, Ali retains his stature as the foremost authority on the Tafsir (Qur'anic exegesis), Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and religious thought.^[9][3] Ali also holds a high position in almost all Sufi Muslim orders (Tariqah) which trace their lineage to Muhammad through him.^[1] In this way, his influence continued throughout Islamic history.

The compilation of sermons, lectures and quotations attributed to Ali are compiled in the form of several books. "Nahj al-Balagha" is the most notable one. This book is considered by historians and scholars as an important literary work in Islam.^[10][11][1]

Contents 1 Ali in Mecca 1.1 Birth and childhood 1.2 Conversion to Islam 1.3 After conversion to Islam 1.4 Migration to Medina 2 Ali in Medina 2.1 During Muhammad's era 2.1.1 Family life 2.1.2 Ali in the Battles 2.1.3 Missions for Islam 2.1.4 The Incident of Mubahala 2.1.5 Ghadir Khumm 2.2 Succession to Muhammad 2.3 Inheritance 2.4 Life after the death of Muhammad 2.5 Ali and the Rashidun Caliphs 3 Caliphate 3.1 Election of Ali as a Caliph 3.2 Reign as a Caliph 3.3 First Fitna 3.4 Death 3.5 Burial 4 Aftermath 5 Knowledge 5.1 Works related to Ali 6 Descendants 7 Views 7.1 Muslim view 7.1.1 Shia Muslim view of Ali 7.1.2 Sunni Muslim view of Ali 7.1.3 Sufi Muslim view of Ali 7.2 Non-Muslim view 7.3 Muslim veneration of Ali 7.4 Ali as deity 8 Historiography of Ali's life 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11.1 For further reading 12 External links 12.1 Some of the Ali's most famous sermons and letters 12.2 Sunni biography 12.3 Shi'a biography

Part of a series on Islam: Ali The Shia Imam The Rashidun Caliph

Family Ali Descendants Ahl al-Bayt Timeline of Ali's life The Fourteen Infallibles Hadith of the Event of the Cloak Hadith of Mubahela Hadith of the two weighty things Succession to Muhammad Hadith of the pond of Khumm Nahj al-Balagha Birthplace Zulfiqar Ali the Warrior First Fitna Views: Sunni Shi'a non-Muslim This box: view • talk • edit

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Main articles: Family tree of Ali and Birthplace of Ali ibn Abi Talib

Ali's father Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib was the custodian of the Kaaba and a Sheikh of Banu Hashim -- an important branch in the powerful tribe of the Quraysh. He was also an uncle of Muhammad. Ali's mother Fatima binte Asad also belonged to Banu Hashim. This also made him a descendant of Ismael, the son of Ibrahim.^[12]

Muhammad had a close relationship with Ali's parents. When Muhammad was orphaned and later, lost his grandfather Shaiba ibn Hashim (Abdul Muttalib), Ali's father took him into his house.^[1] Later on Muhammad set out and married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. Ali was born after two or three years.^[13]

Ali was born in Mecca, either inside the Kaaba (as Shia believe) or beside it, where he stayed with his mother for three days. Muhammad was the first person whom Ali saw as he took the newborn in his hands. Muhammad named him Ali, meaning "the exalted one". ^{[1] [14]}

When Ali was five to six years old, a famine occurred in and around Mecca, which affected the economic conditions of Ali's father, who already had a big family to support. Muhammad then requested to become Ali's guardian.^{[4] [15] [1]}

Main article: Identity of first male Muslim

The second period of Ali's life, lasting slightly more than a decade, begins in 610, when he converted to Islam, and ends with the Hijra (withdrawal) of Muhammad to Medina in 622.^[1] When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation, Ali, then only about nine years old, believed him and professed to Islam. Ali was the first male to enter Islam.^{[16][1][4][17]} Some historians and scholars believe Ali's conversion isn't worthy enough to consider as the first male due to the fact that he was child at that time.^[18]

The Shi'a believe that in keeping with Ali's divine mission, he converted to Islam before he had ever taken part in any of the rites of the pre-Islamic Meccan traditional religion, which Muslims regard as polytheism (see shirk) or paganism. Hence the Shi'a say of Ali that his face is honored - that is, it was never sullied by prostrations before idols.^[4]

For three years Muhammad invited people to Islam in secret. Then he started inviting people publicly. When, according to the Qur'an, he was commanded to invite his closer relatives to come to Islam^[19] he gathered the Banu Hashim in a ceremony and told them clearly that whoever would be the first to accept his invitation would become his successor and inheritor. Ali, who was 13 or 14 years old at that time, was the one who step forth and embrace Islam. This invitation was repeated three times but only Ali answered Muhammad. Muhammad accepted Ali's submission to the faith and thus fulfilled his promise. Others laughed at them and dispersed.^[20] This event is known as Hadith Yawm Al-Dar or Yawm Al-Enzar among Muslim historians and scholars.

Then Muhammad made a public declaration and the struggle between Muslims and pagans started. As the ranks of Muhammad's followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba. So they persecuted Muslims. According to the tradition, the leaders of Makhzum and Abd Shams, two important clans of Quraysh, declared a public boycott against the clan of Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, in order to put pressure on the clan. At this time, Muhammad arranged for some of his followers to emigrate to Ethiopia. The boycott lasted for three years. Ali stood firmly in support of Muhammad during the years of persecution of Muslims and boycott of Banu Hashim in Mecca.^[21]

See also: Hijra (Islam)

In 622 CE, the year of Muhammad's migration to Yathrib (now Medina), Ali risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to impersonate him and thwart an assassination plot, so that Muhammad could escape in safety.^[1][4][22] This night is called "Laylat Al-mabit". According to some hadith a verse was revealed about Ali concerning his sacrifice on the night of Hijra which says "And among men is he who sells his NAFS (self) in exchange for the pleasure of Allah"^[23][24]

Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Mecca to carry out Muhammad's instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping. Then he went to Medina with Fatima binte Asad (his mother), Fatimah (the daughter of Muhammad), and two other women.^[4][16]

See also: Muhammad in Medina and Ali the Warrior

Ali was 22 or 23 years old when he migrated to Medina. When Muhammad was creating bonds of brotherhood among his Sahaba (companions) he selected Ali as his brother.^[16][4][25]

For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service, serving in his armies, the bearer of his banner in every battle, leading parties of warriors on raids, and carrying messages and orders.^[26] As one of Muhammad’s lieutenants, and later his son-in-law, Ali was a person of authority and standing in the Muslim community.

See also: Ahl al-Bayt

In 623 the second year after Hijra, Muhammad told Ali that he had been ordered by God to give his daughter Fatimah to Ali in marriage.^[1] Muhammad said to Fatima: "I have married you to the dearest of my family to me."^[25] This family is glorified by Muhammad frequently and he declared them as his Ahl al-Bayt in events such as Mubahala and hadith like Hadith of the Event of the Cloak. They were also glorified in the Qur'an in several cases such as "the verse of purification".^[27][28] Ali had four children born to Fatimah, the only child of Muhammad to have progeny. In fact, so far as material comforts were concerned, it was a life of hardship and deprivation. Throughout their life together, Ali remained poor because he did not set great store by material wealth. Fatimah was the only one of her sisters who was not married to a wealthy man. To relieve their extreme poverty, Ali worked as a drawer and carrier of water and she as a grinder of corn. Even often there was no food in her house. One day she said to Ali: "I have ground until my hands are blistered." and Ali answered "I have drawn water until I have pains in my chest,"^[25][29]

Their marriage lasted about ten years and ended when Fatima died. Although polygyny was permitted, Ali did not marry another woman while Fatimah was alive, and his marriage to her possesses a special spiritual significance for all Muslims because it is seen as the marriage between the greatest saintly figures surrounding Muhammad. After Fatimah's death, Ali married other wives and fathered many other children.^[1]

v • d • e Campaigns of Ali
Badr – Banu Qaynuqa – Uhud – Banu Nadir – The Trench – Banu Qurayza – Hudaybiyyah – Khaybar – Mu'tah – Mecca – Hunayn – Autas – Ta'if – Bassorah– Siffin– Nahrawan

Main article: Ali the Warrior

With the exception of the Battle of Tabouk, Ali took part in all the battles and expeditions fought for Islam.^[4] He was the standard-bearer in every battle that he partook in. He also led parties of warriors on raids into enemy lands.

Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624, at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Umayyad champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. Al Seerah of Ibn Hisham narrates how he killed 20 of the pagans^[30] and Al Maghazi put the number at 22.^[31]

Ali was also prominent at the Battle of Uhud, as well as many other battles where he wielded a bifurcated sword known as Zulfiqar.^[32] Muslim historians reported that Ali, alone, destroyed all the standard bearers.^[33] He also had the special role of protecting Muhammad when most of the Muslims' army escaped at the battles of Uhud^[1] and it was said "La fata illa Ali, La saifa illa Zulfiqar" (There is no brave youth except Ali and there is no sword which renders service except Zulfiqar)."^[34] He also defended Muhammad in Battle of Hunayn in 630.^[1]

Muhammad also designated him as one of the scribes who would write down the text of the Qur'an, which had been revealed to Muhammad during the previous two decades. As Islam began to spread throughout Arabia, Ali helped to establish the new Islamic order. He was instructed to write down the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the peace treaty between Muhammad and the Quraysh in 628. Ali was so reliable and trustworthy that Muhammad asked him to carry the messages and declare the orders. In 630 he recited to a large gathering of pilgrims in Mecca a portion of the Qur'an that declared that Muhammad and the Islamic community were no longer bound by agreements made earlier with Arab polytheists. During the Conquest of Mecca in 630, Muhammad asked Ali to guarantee that the conquest would be bloodless. He ordered Ali to break all the idols worshiped by the Banu Aus, Banu Khazraj, Tayy, and those in the Ka'bah to purify it after its defilement by the polytheism of the pre-Islamic era. One year later Ali was sent to Yemen to spread the teachings of Islam. Ali also was charged with settling several disputes and putting down the uprisings of various tribes.^[1][16]

Main articles: Mubahala and Hadith of Mubahela

See also: Ahl al-Bayt

According to hadith collections, it is narrated that during the 9th - 10th year after hijra an Arab Christian envoy from Najran (currently in northern Yemen and partly in Saudi Arabia) came to Muhammad to argue which of the two parties erred in its doctrine concerning Jesus.^[35] After likening Jesus' miraculous birth to Adam's creation^[36], Muhammad called them to Mubahala (Cursing), where each party should ask God to destroy the lying party and their families. Muhammad, to prove to them that he is a prophet, brought his daughter Fatimah and his surviving grandchildren, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali, and Ali ibn Abi Talib and came back to the Christians and said this is my family (Ahl al-Bayt) and covered himself and his family with a cloak.^[37] The Christian envoy, the traditions add, declined to take part in Mubahala and chose instead to pay tribute.

Main articles: Hadith of the pond of Khumm and Hadith of the two weighty things

At Ghadir Khumm in 632, while Muhammad returning to Medina from his last pilgrimage, Muhammad made certain statements about Ali that have been interpreted in very different ways by Sunnis and Shias.^[1]

There is another quote from Muhammad about the rightness of Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him which is:

"O people, I am a human being. I am about to receive a message from my Lord and I, in response to Allah's call, (would bid good-bye to you), but I am leaving among you two weighty things: the one being the Book of Allah in which there is right guidance and light, so hold fast to the Book of Allah and adhere to it. He exhorted (us) (to hold fast) to the Book of Allah and then said: The second are the members of my household I remind you (of your duties) to the members of my family.^[38]."

This quote is confirmed by both Shi’a and Sunni everywhere, but Sunni and Shi'a take different meanings of the quote.

Also some of Sunni and all of Shi'a resources report that Muhammad then proclaimed:

"For whoever I am a Mawla of, then Ali is his Mawla^[39][40]."

The Shi'ites regard these statements as constituting the investiture of Ali as the successor of Muhammad and as the first Imam; the Sunnis, by contrast, take them only as an expression of Muhammad's closeness to Ali and of his wish that Ali, as his cousin and son-in-law, inherit his family responsibilities upon his death.

This statement is seen by Sunnis as a recommendation of Ali's good qualities and a refutation to prevailing rumors about him^[41], although Shia see it as a confirmation of Ali's succession to Muhammad and Imamah^[42] Many Sufis also interpret the episode as the transfer of Muhammad's spiritual power and authority to Ali, whom they regard as the wali par excellence.^[1]

On the basis of this hadith Ali later insisted on his religious authority superior to that of Abu Bakr and Umar.^[43]

Part of a series on the Succession to Muhammad

Farewell Pilgrimage Ghadir Khumm Pen and paper Saqifah General bay'ah Fatimah's house The inheritance This box: view • talk • edit

Part of a series on Shī‘a Islam
Branches
Twelver · Ismaili · Zaidi
People of the House
Muhammad Ali ibn Abu Talib Fatima Zahra Hasan • Husayn
Beliefs & Practices
Succession of Ali Imamate of the Family Sahaba • The Four Companions View of the Qur'an Ghadir Khumm • Karbala Mourning of Muharram Light of Aql
See Also
History of Shia Islam
This box: view • talk • edit

See also: Succession to Muhammad, saqifah, and Rashidun

Muhammad united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. While Ali, his cousin and son-in-law, and the rest of Muhammad's close family were washing his body for burial, at a gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at Saqifah, Umar (Umar ibn al-Khattab), a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's father in-law and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor.^[44][45]

Ali himself was firmly convinced of his legitimacy for caliphate based on his close kinship with Muhammad, his intimate association and his knowledge of Islam and his merits in serving its cause. He told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance (bay'ah) as caliph was based on his belief of his own prior title. He had not changed his mind when he finally gave his pledge to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at at time when it was clear that the Muslims had turned away from him.^[46][47]

According to Nahj al-Balagha Ali believed that the caliphate was his right and told:

"By Allah the son of Abu Quhafah (Abu Bakr) dressed himself with it (the caliphate) and he certainly knew that my position in relation to it was the same as the position of the axis in relation to the hand-mill...I put a curtain against the caliphate and kept myself detached from it... I watched the plundering of my inheritance till the first one went his way but handed over the Caliphate to Ibn al-Khattab after himself.^[48]

According to Sunni accounts, Muhammad died without having appointed a successor, and with a need for leadership, they gathered and voted for the position of caliph. This did not create an immediate division, however, because Ali did not fight against the elected caliphs. Shi'a accounts differ by asserting that Muhammad had designated Ali as his successor on a number of occasions, including on his death bed. Ali had many friends, followers and supporters who believed that he should have succeeded Muhammad. This did not create an immediate division, however, because Ali did not fight against the elected caliphs.^[49]

The succession to Muhammad is an extremely contentious issue. Muslims ultimately divided into two branches based on their political attitude towards this issue, which forms the primary theological barrier between the two major divisions of Muslims: Sunni and Shi'a, with the latter following Ali as the successor to Muhammad. The two groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him: Umar (or Umar ibn al-Khattāb) and Uthman Ibn Affan. Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shi'a claim that he distanced himself from them, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had appointed to him. The Sunni say that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God Himself, then it would have been his duty as the leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. The Shia claim, however, that Ali did not fight Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman, because firstly he did not have the military strength and if he decided to, it would have caused a civil war amongst the Muslims, which was still a nascent community throughout the Arab world.^[50]

Main article: Fadak

See also: Hadith of Muhammad's inheritance

After Muhammad had died his daughter, Fatimah, asked Abu Bakr to deliver her lands of Fadak and Khaybar but he refused and told her that prophets didn't have any legacy and Fadak belonged to the Muslim community.^[51] The new caliph argued that Muhammad's considerable landed property had been held by Muhammad in trust for the community, and was rightfully the property of the state. despite Ali's rejoinder that Muhammad's revelations included accounts of prophetic inheritance (Qur'an 27:16, 21:89) Fatimah became angry and stopped speaking to Abu Bakr, and continued assuming that attitude till she died.^[52] After Fatima's death Ali again claimed her inheritance, but was denied with the same argument.

However, Umar, the caliph who succeeded Abu Bakr, did restore the estates in Medina to `Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib and Ali, as representatives of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim. The properties in Khaybar and Fadak were retained as state property.^[53] Shi'a sources regard this as another instance of the persecution of Muhammad's lineage, the Ahl al-Bayt, at the hands of the caliphs they regard as usurpers, believing that Ali himself was saddened by this.

See also: Origin and development of the Qur'an

Another part of Ali's life started in 632 after death of Muhammad and lasted until assassination of Uthman Ibn Affan, the third caliph in 656. During these years Ali didn't take part in any battle or conquest.^[16] He also didn't assumes any executive position. He had a few participation a politic affairs especially after death of his wife, Fatima Zahra. He spent his time for his family and worked as a farmer. He dug a lot of wells and gardens beside Medina and endowed for public usage. These well are known as "Abar Ali" (Ali's wells) today.^[54] He also made some gardens for his family and descendants.

According to Shia as well as some Sunni scholars Ali compiled a complete version of the Qur'an, Mushaf.^[55] Before six months had elapsed after the death of Muhammad, the volume was completed and carried by camel to show to other people of Medina. The order of this mushaf differed from the mushaf which was gathered later during Uthman era. Due to the fact that this book was rejected by several people when he showed it to them. Despite this, Ali made no objection or resistance against standardized mushaf.^[56] This book is inherited by his descendant, i.e. Shia Imams.

See also: Rashidun, The election of Uthman, and Siege of Uthman

Ali did not give his oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr until some time after the death of his wife, Fatimah.^[16] Ali participated in the funeral of Abu Bakr but did not participate in the Ridda Wars.^[57]

He pledged allegiance to the second caliph Umar ibn Khattab and helped him as a trusted advisor. Caliph Umar particularly relied upon Ali as the Chief Judge of Medina and as his deputy when he traveled outside of Medina.^[58]

Umar used Ali's suggestions in political issues as well as religious ones. When he asked Ali if he should personally participate in the battlefields of Persia and the Byzantine lands, Ali advised him not to do so.^[59]

Ali was one of the electoral council to choose the third caliph and one of the two major candidates, but most of the electors supported Uthman and Ali was reluctantly urged to accept him.^[60] According to Nahj al-Balagha Ali told them:

You have certainly known that I am the most rightful of all others for the Caliphate. By Allah, so long as the affairs of Muslims remain intact and there is no oppression in it save on myself I shall keep quiet seeking reward for it (from Allah) and keeping aloof from its attractions and allurements for which you aspire.^[61]

There is controversy among historians about the relationship between Ali and Uthman Ibn Affan, the third Caliph. Although Ali pledged allegiance to him, Ali disagreed with some of his policies. Therefore some historians, like the writers of The Cambridge History of Islam, consider Ali as one the leading members of Uthman's opposition. Madelung says Ali didn't support Uthman when rebels besieged his palace.^[62] On the other hand Ali himself said in numerous cases that he had done whatever he had been able to defend him but he didn't agree with Uthman's policies.^[63] Some other sources says Ali had acted as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him.^[16]

In the beginning of rebellion people demanded that the exiled be returned to their homes, the deprived be provided sustenance, the men of strength and integrity be appointed as governors, and so on.^[64] They requested Ali to speak to Uthman on their behalf and to admonish him for their sake.^[16] Ali told Uthman "The people are behind me and they have made me an ambassador between you and themselves." He forewarned Uthman that he should change his manner immediately or he would be killed. Ali told him "I swear to you by Allah that you should not be that Imam of the people who will be killed because it has been said that, 'An Imam of this people will be killed after which killing and fighting will be made open for them till the Day of Judgment, and he will confuse their matters and spread troubles over them. As a result, they will not discern truth from wrong.'"^[65] Due to Ali's mediation and Uthman's commitment, rebellion settled down but it had risen again.^{[citation needed]} Finally the choices offered by the rebels amounted to abdication of Uthman and selection of another caliph.^[66] He tried to mitigate the severity of the siege by his insistence that Uthman should be allowed water.^[16] Ali even sent his own sons to protect Uthman's house when he was in danger of being attacked.^[1] While the situation became hard and dangerous Ali told Ibn Abbas "By Allah, I continued protecting him till I feared lest I become a sinner."^[67] Later Ali said he had neither helped him nor tried to kill him. According to his viewpoint Uthman appropriated wealth and did it badly. Rebels protested against it and committed excess therein.^[68]

See also: Rashidun Empire

This is the last part of Ali's life. He was the caliph between 656 and 661 CE which was one the hardest periods in Muslim history and coincided with the First Fitna.

After the assassination of the third Caliph, Uthman Ibn Affan, rebels had to select a new Caliph. But this selection encountered with some difficulties. The rebels were divided into several groups comprising Muhajerin, Ansar, Egyptians, Kufans and Basntes. There were three candidates Ali, Talhah and Al-Zubayr. First they referred to Ali and asked him to accept the caliphate. Also some Companions of Muhammad tried to persuade him to accept the office.^[46][16][69] But he refused and answered:

Leave me and seek some one else. We are facing a matter which has (several) faces and colors, which neither hearts can stand nor intelligence can accept. Clouds are hovering over the sky, and faces are not discernible. You should know that if I respond to you I would lead you as I know and would not care about whatever one may say or abuse. If you leave me then I am the same as you are. It is possible I would listen to and obey whomever you make in charge of your affairs. I am better for you as a counselor than as chief.^[70]

Then rebels offered the caliphate to Talhah and Al-Zubayr and some other companions but they refused it too. Therefore they threatened that, unless the people of Medina choose a caliph within one day, they would be forced to take some drastic action. In order to resolve the deadlock all of the Muslims gathered in Mosque of Prophet in 18 June 656CE. (19th Dhu al-Hijjah 35AH.) to chose the caliph. Ali refused to accept caliphate by the fact that the people who pressed him hardest were the rebels, and he therefore declined at first. When the notable companions of Muhammad as well as people who live in Medina urged him, however, he finally agreed. According to Abu Mekhnaf's narration Talhah was the first prominent companion who gave his pledge but the other narrations claim they didn't do so or even somebody force them to do so. However he and Al-Zubayr later claimed they did so reluctantly. But Ali refused this claim and say they do so voluntarily. Mudelong believe that force didn't use to urge people to give their pledge and they pledge in public in the mosque. ^{[71] [3]}

While the overwhelming majority of people who lived in Medina as well as rebels gave their pledge, some major figures didn't do so. Umayyads, kins of Uthman, escaped to Levant or remained in their houses and later refused Ali's legitimacy. Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas were absent and Abdullah ibn Umar abstained from offering his allegiance but both of them assured Ali that they wouldn't do anything against Ali. ^[72] Another prominent figure who was in Mecca at that time and later opposed Ali, was A'isha, Muhammad's widow.

At the beginning Ali told people that Muslim polity had come to be plagued by dissension and discord and he want to purge Islam of all evil from which it had come to suffer. Then warned all concerned that he would tolerate no sedition and all found guilty of subversive activities would be dealt with harshly. He advised people to behave as true Muslims.^[73]

But he soon found that he was helpless and the prisoner of the people who didn't obey him. The caliphate had come to him as the gift of the rebels and he didn't have enough force to control or punish them.^[74] When some people asked Ali to punish those who killed Uthman, Ali answered, "How do I have the power for it while those who assaulted him are in the height of their power. They have superiority over us, not we over them."^[75] Furthermore A'isha, Talhah, Al-Zubayr and Muawiyah I accused him of the murder of Uthman and of responsibility for the subsequent civil war, while Ali believed all of them were more accountable for it.^[76]

Soon after Ali became caliph, he dismissed provincial governors who had been appointed by Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides. He acted against the counsel of Mughrah ibn Shobah and Ibn Abbas, who had advised him to proceed cautiously. Muawiyah, kinsman of Uthman and governor of Levant, also spoke in this vein and refused to submit to Ali's orders - the only governor to do this.^[16][3]

After the Battle of Bassorah Ali transferred his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in Iraq. Kufa was in the middle of Islamic land and had strategic position.^[77][3]

Ali resumed the land which had been granted by Uthman and sweared to resume whatever some elites had taken before him. He opposed the centralization of capital control over provincial revenues and favored an equal distribution of taxes and booty among the Muslims; in contrast to Umar he distributed the entire revenue of the divan among Muslims without keeping anything in reserve. When asked to pay more money to elites he said "Do you command me that I should seek support by oppressing those over whom I have been placed? By Allah, I won't do so as long as the world goes on, and as long as one star leads another in the sky. Even if it were my property, I would have distributed it equally among them, then why not when the property is that of Allah."^[16][78]

Ali believed that people and governors have rights over each other and God created these rights so as to equate with one another. The greatest of these rights that Allah has made obligatory is the right of the ruler over the ruled and the right of the ruled over the ruler. If the ruled fulfill the rights of the ruler and the ruler fulfills their rights, then right attains the position of honor among them, the ways of religion become established, signs of justice become fixed and the sunnah gains currency. He wrote directions for his officials which clearly show what form of regime he wanted to introduce. It was not to be a regime whose officers had an upper hand and were fattened on public money. It was to be a regime where the governed and the tax-payers were at premium. It was their convenience for which the State was to function. It was a welfare-state working solely for the welfare of the people living under its rule, a regime where the rich cannot get richer while the poor are made poorer; a regime where canons of religion hold the balance between the governed and the ruler. He asked people not to speak with him as they spoke with cruel governors and be honest with him.^[79]

Ali had decisive beliefs that he shouldn't start a war with other Muslims but when the enemy started it his army wouldn't retreat unless they wanted to attack again. He ordered his soldiers not to kill who would become injured, or not be able to defend himself, or escape from the battlefield and injuries and wanted his warriors not to injure women.^[80]

First Fitna
Bassorah – Siffin – Nahrawan

See also: First Fitna

The First Fitna, 656–661 CE, followed the assassination of the caliph Uthman Ibn Affan, continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended, on the whole, by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate. This civil war is often called the Fitna, and regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic ummah (nation). Ali was first opposed by a faction led by Talhah, Al-Zubayr and the Muhammad's wife, Aisha bint Abu Bakr. This group was known as disobedients (Nakithin) by their enemies. First they gathered in Mecca then moved to Bassorah with the expectation of finding the necessary forces and resources to mobilize people in what is now Iraq. The rebels occupied Bassorah, killing many people. When Ali asked them for obedience and a pledge of allegiance, they refused. The two parties met at the Battle of Bassorah (Battle of the Camel) in 656, where Ali emerged victorious.^[81]

Then he appointed Ibn Abbas governor of Bassorah and moved his capital to Kufah. Later he was challenged by Muawiyah, the ruler of Levant and cousin of Uthman, who refused Ali's demands for allegiance and called for revenge for Uthman. Ali opened negotiations with him with the hope of regaining his allegiance but Muawiyah insisted on Levant autonomy under his own leadership. Muawiyah replied by mobilizing his Syrian supporters and refusing to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. The two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although, Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in 657. After a week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as laylat al-harir (the night of clamor) the Muawiyah's army were on the point of being routed when Amr ibn al-Aas advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist mushaf (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Qur'an, or complete copies of it) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army.^[16][82]

The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who should be Caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent Ali or the Kufans caused a further split in Ali's army. Ash'ath ibn Qays and some others rejected Ali's nominees, `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas and Malik al-Ashtar, and insisted on Abu Musa Ash'ari, who was opposed by Ali, since he had earlier prevented people from supporting him. Finally Ali was urged to accept Abu Musa. Some of Ali's supporters, later were known as Kharijites (schismatics), opposed this decision and rebelled and Ali had to fight with them in the Battle of Nahrawan. The arbitration resulted in the dissolution of Ali's coalition and some have opined that this was Muawiyah's intention.^[16][83]

Muawiyah's army invaded and plundered cities, which Ali's governors couldn't prevent and people didn't support him to fight with them. Muawiyah overpowered Egypt, Yemen and other areas.^[84]

This civil war created permanent divisions within the Muslim community and Muslims were divided over who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate.^[85]

On the nineteenth of Ramadan, while Ali was praying in the mosque of Kufa, the Kharijite Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam assassinated him with a strike of his poison-coated sword. Ali, wounded by the poisonous sword, lived for two days and died on the 21st of Ramadan in the city of Kufa in 661 CE.^[86]

In these two days he dictated his will to his household "My advice to you is that you should not consider anyone as a co-worker of the Lord, be firm in your belief that there is One and only One Allah. Do not waste the knowledge given to you by the Muhammad and do not give up and destroy his Sunnah (traditions). Keep these two pillars of Islam (monotheism and Sunnah of the Muhammad) aloft. If you act according to my advice then you cannot be blamed for damaging or destroying the religion." ^[87]

Many Shi'a believe that Ali didn’t want his grave to be desecrated by his enemies and because of that he asked his friends and family members to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite is supposed to have been revealed later during the Abbasid caliphate by Ja'far al-Sadiq, the sixth Shia Imam.^[88] Most Shi'as accept that Ali was buried at the Tomb of Imam Ali in the Imam Ali Mosque at what is now the city of Najaf, which grew around the mosque and shrine called Masjid Ali.^[89]

However another story, usually maintained by Afghanis, notes that his body was taken and buried in the Afghan city of Mazari Sharif at the famous Blue Mosque or Rawze-e-Sharif.^[90]

Upon the death of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Kufi Muslims pledged allegiance to his eldest son Hasan without dispute, as Ali on many occasions had declared that just Ahl Al-Bayt of Muhammad were entitled to rule the Muslim community.^[91]

At this time Muawiyah held both Levant and Egypt and, as commander of the largest force in the Muslim Empire, had the declared himself caliph and marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Hasan's caliphate. War ensued during which Muawiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the army rebelled against him. Finally, Hasan was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Muawiyah. In this way Muawiyah captured the Islamic caliphate and in every way possible placed the severest pressure upon Ali's family and his Shi'a. Muawiyah also established the Umayyad caliphate which was a centralized monarchy.^{[92] [3]}

Madelung writes:

In face of the fake Umayyad claim to legitimate sovereignty in Islam as God's Vice-regents on earth, and in view of Umayyad treachery, arbitrary and divisive government, and vindictive retribution, they came to appreciate his [Ali's] honesty, his unbending devotion to the reign of Islam, his deep personal loyalties, his equal treatment of all his supporters, and his generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies.^[93]

See also: Nahj al-Balagha

Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. Shia ans Sufis believe that Muhammad told about him "I'm the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate..."^[94][95][96] Ali told people about himself "Ask me before you miss me."^[97] Muslims consider him as a foremost authority on the Tafsir (Qur'anic exegesis), Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and religious thought.^[3] He also has a high rank position in almost all Sufi orders which trace their lineage to Muhammad through him.^[1]

As Henry Corbin narrates, Ali himself gives this testimony:

Not a single verse of the Qur'an descended upon (was revealed to) the Messenger of God which he did not proceed to dictate to me and make me recite. I would write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me as to its tafsir (the literal explanation) and the ta'wil (the spiritual exegesis), the nasikh (the verse which abrogates) and the mansukh (the abrogated verse), the muhkam and the mutashabih (the fixed and the ambiguous), the particular and the general...^[98]

In later Islamic philosophy, especially in the teachings of Mulla Sadra and his followers, like Allameh Tabatabaei, Ali's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of Sadra's school regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam.^[1]

Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of grammar and rhetoric. His speeches, sermons and letters served for generations afterward as models of literary expression.^[3] Numerous short sayings of Ali have become part of general Islamic culture and are quoted as aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They also have become the basis of literary works or have been integrated into poetic verse in many languages. Already in the 8th century, literary authorities such as 'Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-'Amiri pointed to the unparalleled eloquence of Ali's sermons and sayings, as did al-Jahiz in the following century.^[1]

Even who works in the Divan of Umayyad recited Ali's sermons to improve their eloquence.^[99] Of course Peak of Eloquence (Nahj al-Balagha) is an extract of Ali's quotations from literal viewpoint as its compiler mentioned in its preface. While there are many other quotations, prayers (Du'as), sermons and letters in other literal, historic and religious books.^[100]

In addition, some hidden or occult sciences such as Jafr, the science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, are said to have been established by Ali.^[1]

• Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence) contains eloquent sermons, letters and quotations attributed to Ali which is compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi. This book has a prominent position in Arabic literature. "Masadir Nahj al-Balagha wa asaniduh" written by "al-Sayyid `Abd al-Zahra' al-Husayni al-Khatib" introduces some of these sources.^[101] Also "Nahj al-sa'adah fi mustadrak Nahj al-balaghah" by "Muhammad Baqir al-Mahmudi" represents all of Ali's extant speeches, sermons, decrees, epistles, prayers, and sayings have been collected. It includes the Nahj al-balaghah and other discourses which were not incorporated by ash-Sharif ar-Radi or were not available to him. Apparently, except for some of the aphorisms, the original sources of all the contents of the Nahj al-balaghah have been determined.^[11] There are several Comments on the Peak of Eloquence such as Comments of Ibn Abu al-Hadid and comments of Muhammad Abduh.
• Divan-i Ali ibn Abi Talib (poems of Ali ibn Abi Talib)^[102]
• Nuzhat al-Absar va Mahasin al_Asar, Ali's sermons which has compiled by Ali ibn Muhammad Tabari Mamtiri^[103]

Main articles: Descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Alavi

Ali had several wives and Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad, was the most beloved one. He had four children born to Fatimah comprising Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali, Zaynab bint Ali^[1] and Umm Kulthum bint Ali. His other famous sons were Al-Abbas ibn Ali born to Fatima binte Hizam (Um Al-Banin) and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah.^[104]

Hasan ibn Ali, born in 625 AD, was the second Shia Imam and he also occupied the outward function of caliph for about six months. During that time Mu'awiayh marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Imam Hasan's caliphate. War ensued during which Mu'awiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the army rebelled against Hasan. Finally, he was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Mu'awiyah, provided it would again return to Imam Hasan after Mu'awiyah's death. In the year 50 A.H. he was poisoned and martyred by one of his own household who, as has been accounted by historians, had been motivated by Mu'awiyah.^[105]

Husayn ibn Ali, born in 626 AD, was the third Shia Imam. Husayn lived under the most difficult outward conditions of suppression and persecution by Mu'awiyah. After the death of Mu'awiyah, his son, Yazid I, captured the caliphate and wanted the allegiance of Husayn ibn Ali. Yazid was openly going against the teachings of Islam in public and changing the sunnah of Muhammad. Husayn was determined not to give his allegiance to Yazid and knew full well that he would be killed as death was inevitable in the face of the military power of the Umayyads. On the tenth day of Muharram of the year 680 the he lined up before the army of caliph with his small band of follower and finally almost all of them were killed in the Battle of Karbala. The anniversary of his death is called the Day of Ashura and it is a day of mourning and religious observance for Shi'a Muslims.^[106] In this battle some of Ali's other sons were killed. al-Tabari has mentioned their name in his history. Al-Abbas, the holder of Husayn's standard, Ja'far, Abdallah and Uthman, the four sons born to Fatima binte Hizam. Muhammad and Abu Bakr. The death of the last one is doubtful.^[107] Some other historians have added the name of other Ali's sons who killed in Karbala including Ibrahim, Umar, Abdallah ibn al-Asqar. ^[108][109]

His daughter Zaynab bint Ali who was in Karbala was captured by Yazid's army and later played a great role in revealing what had happened to Husayn ibn Ali and his followers. Her sermons in Kufa provoked the people into avenging Hussein's martyrdom. She also delivered a furious sermon in the court of the caliph that made his authority and despotic rule feel undermined.^[110]

Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed/sayid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'as place much more emphasis and value on the distinction.^[1]

Except for Muhammad, there is no one in Islamic history about whom as much has been written in Islamic languages as Ali.^[1] Ali is revered and honored by all Muslims. Having been one of the first Muslims and foremost Ulema (Islamic scholars), he was extremely knowledgeable in matters of religious belief and Islamic jurisprudence, as well as in the history of the Muslim community. He was known for his bravery and courage. Muslims honor Muhammad, Ali, and other pious Muslims and add pious interjections after their names.

Main article: Shi'a view of Ali

The Shias regards Ali as the most important figure after Muhammad. According to them Muhammad in his life time suggested on various occasions, that Ali would be the leader of Muslims after his demise like Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the Twelve Successors and so on.

According to this view, Ali as the successor of Muhammad not only rules over the community in justice but also interprets the Sharia Law and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was free from error and sin (infallible) and he was appointed by God by divine decree (nass) through Muhammad.^[111] Ali is known as "perfect man" (Al-insan al-kamil) similar to Muhammad according to Shia viewpoint.^[112]

Shia pilgrims usually go to Mashad Ali in Najaf for Ziyarat, pray there and read "Ziyarat Amin Allah"^[113] or other Ziyaratnames.^[114]

Main article: Sunni view of Ali

The Sunni Muslims regard Ali as one of the Ahl al-Bayt and the last of the Rashidun and one of the most influential and respected figures in Islam. Ali is held with the utmost respect along with the Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman Ibn Affan.^[3]

Almost all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being Naqshbandi, who go through Abu Bakr. Even in this order, there is Ja'far al-Sadiq, the great great grandson of Ali. Sufis, whether Sunni or Shi'ite, believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad the saintly power wilayah that makes the spiritual journey to God possible.^[1] Imam Ali represents the essence of the teachings of the School of Islamic Sufism.

Sufis have glorified Ali in their works.^[115]. For example Rumi says in Masnavi:

The man spat in Ali's pure face of every saint and prophet far and wide The prostrates itself before this face...^[116]

Sufis recite Manqabat Ali in the praise of Ali (Maula Ali), after Hamd and Naat in their Qawwali.

Main article: Non-Muslim view of Ali

Some of the prominent non-Muslim Islamic scholars and politicians like Edward Gibbon^[117], Thomas Carlyle^[118] and Kofi Annan^[119] praised Ali while a few of them, like Lammens^[120], have held a negative view of Ali.

Some Islamic Scholars do not accept hadiths collected in later periods, and only study the early collections of narrations. This leads them to regard certain reported events as inauthentic or irrelevant.

Wilferd Madelung has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything not included in "early sources".^[121]

UN Legal Committee, member states voted that the order of Ali to Malik al-Ashtar (Nahj Al-Balagha letter 53) should be considered as one of the sources of International Law. The United Nations urged the Arab nations to use that letter as a model.^[122] The UNDP in its 2002 Arab Human Development listed six sayings of Imam Ali about the importance of knowledge and establishment of ideal governance. ^[123]

Ali's birthday is celebrated on 13th of Rajab by Muslims all over the world and is a special occasion for Shia Muslims to remember their first Imam who was born in the House of Allah/Kaaba. His death is remembered and mourned from the 19 to 21st of Ramadan which is the anniversary of his assassination and martyrdom. The Ziyarat of the Tomb of Imam Ali in the Imam Ali Mosque is a usual religious tradition among Shias and Sufis.

At the Ali Masjid in Pakistan is a huge boulder which carries the marks of a hand believed to be that of Hadrat (Hazrat) Ali. In India the Moula-Ali Darga or mortuary was built in the memory of Hazrat Ali about 15 Kilometers from Secunderabad. There is an annual event Moula-ali Urs that takes place during the month of Moharram and people gather there.

Many Muslims (mostly Shia) and some non-muslims (like Hindus in Uttar Pradesh, India) say "Ya Ali Madad" or "Ya Ali", to seek help from Ali in times of difficulty or to seek strength in manual and strenuous work, getting relief from pain, etc. This is frowned upon by Sunni Muslims, as it means invoking Ali as if he was God or equal to God.

Ali has high position in the mind of Muslims and they made a lot of pictures, poems and myths about him. For example "Ali Guyam, Ali Juyam" (I call Ali, I seek Ali) is a famous rhyme in Iran. He is the main protagonist in the epic poem Utendi wa Tambuka, dated 1728 - one of the earliest known documents in the Swahili language, which is considered a classic of that culture.

Main article: Ghulat

Several groups of people has recognized Ali as deity. They are known as 'Nusairi' They're described as Ghulat (exaggerators) by Muslims. These groups have gone too far in ascribing divinity to a person, to the (forbidden) point of associating them with God. Almost all other Muslims don't consider them as Muslim. They were forbidden to practice their own formed religion by Ali himself who commanded them to stop worshiping him as a God and only to follow to teachings of Allah and Muhammad.

See also: Historiography of early Islam

The primary sources for scholarship on the life of Ali are the Qur'an and the Hadith, as well as other texts of early Islamic history. The extensive secondary sources include, in addition to works by Sunni and Shia Muslims, writings by Christian Arabs, Hindus, and other non-Muslims from the Middle East and Asia and a few works by modern Western scholars. However, many of the early Islamic sources are colored to some extent by a bias, whether positive or negative, toward Ali.^[1]

Due to his position in Islamic science and Muslim history, various groups of Muslims have attempted to collect his quotations, narrate his life and recite his sermons. Historians have paid attention to his government, religious scholars tried to learn his knowledge and the men of literature collected his speeches. Sunnis have narrated many hadith through him from Muhammad in their authentic books. Shias have narrated his quotations in specific books such as "Ghorar Alhakam". In the 7th century Sulaym ibn Qays and `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas narrated his speeches and manners as well as the events which had happened in his life in their works. In the 8th century his descendants such as Muhammad al Baqir and Jafar as Sadiq narrated his quotations which they had learned from their fathers. Some historians such as Abu Mikhnaf narrated the story of major events of Ali's life in his books like Kitab al Jamal, Kitab al-gharat and so on.^{[citation needed]}

• Historiography of early Islam
• List of Muslim reports
• Succession to Muhammad
• Rashidun
• Imamah (Shia doctrine)
• Family tree of Ali
• Imam Ali Mosque
• Shia Islam
• Ismaili
• Fatimid
• Banu Hashim
• Alawism
• Alevi
• Wali
• Ahl al-Bayt
• Nahj al-Balagha
• Zulfiqar
• Non-Muslim view of Ali
• Umayyad tradition of cursing Ali

Books

• Al-Bukhari, Muhammad. Sahih Bukhari, Book 4, 5, 8. 
• Ali ibn Abi Talib. Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence), compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi. 
• Ali ibn al-Athir. In his Biography, vol 2. 
• Ali ibn al-Athir. The Complete History (Al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh), vol 3. 
• Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (1990). History of the Prophets and Kings , translation and commentary issued iby I. K. A. Howard. SUNY Press. 0395652375.  (volume XIX.)
• Al-Waqidi. Al-maghazi (The Invasions) Part 1. Oxford Printing. 
• Ashraf, Shahid (2005). Encyclopedia of Holy Prophet and Companions. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.. ISBN 8126119403. 
• Chirri, Mohammad (1982). The Brother of the Prophet Mohammad. Islamic Center of America, Detroit, MI. Alibris. ISBN 8126171834. 
• Corbin, Henry (1993 (original French 1964)). History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard. London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies, p. 167-175. ISBN 0710304161. 
• Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291364. 
• Ibn Hisham, Abdul Malik (1955). Al Seerah Al Nabaweyah (Biography of the Prophet). Mustafa Al Babi Al Halabi (Egypt). (In Arabic)
• Ibn Taymiyyah, Taqi ad-Din Ahmad. Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah. (In Arabic)
• Khatab, Amal (1996). Battles of Badr and Uhud. Ta-Ha Publishers. ISBN ISBN 1-897940-39-4. 
• Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521779333. 
• Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521646960. 
• Majlisi, Mohammad Baqer. Bihar al-Anwar V.97. (In Arabic)
• Motahhari, Morteza. Ensane Kamel (Perfect Man), translated by Aladdin Pazargadi, edited by Shah Tariq Kamal. Foreign Department Of Bonyad Be'that. 
• Motahhari, Morteza (1997). Glimpses of the Nahj Al-Balaghah, translated by Ali Quli Qara'i. Islamic Culture and Relations Organizati. 978-9644720710. 
• Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj. Sahih Muslim, Book 19, 31. 
• Peters, F. E. (2003). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691114617. 
• Redha, Mohammad; Mohammad Agha (1999). Imam Ali Ibn Abi Taleb (Imam Ali the Fourth Caliph, 1/1 Volume). Dar Al Kotob Al ilmiyah. ISBN 2-7451-2532-X. 
• Rumi, Jalal ad-Din Muhammad (2004). The Masnavi, Book One , translated by Jawid A. Mojaddedi. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192804383. 
• Sayyid ibn Tawoos. Lohouf (Arabic: اللهوف). h. (in Arabic and Persian)
• Stearns, Peter N.; William Leonard

Langer (2001). The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0395652375. 

• Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3. 
• Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1987). The Qur'an in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims. Zahra. ISBN 0710302657. 
• Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. Tafsir al-Mizan. 
• Qommi, Abbas; PearMahumed Ebrahim Trust (translator). The Prayer's AlManac, English version of Mafatih al-Jinan. 
• Watt, William Montgomery (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford University Press. 

Encyclopedia

• Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.. 
• Encyclopædia Iranica. Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University. ISBN 1568590504. 

• Abdul Rauf, Muhammad (1996). Imam 'Ali ibn Abi Talib: The First Intellectual Muslim Thinker, Contributor Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Al Saadawi Publications. ISBN 1881963497. 
• Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (1987 to 1996). History of the Prophets and Kings , translation and commentary issued in multiple volumes. SUNY Press.  volumes 6-17 are relevant.
• Cleary, Thomas (1996). Living and Dying with Grace: Counsels of Hadrat Ali. Shambhala Publications, Incorporated. 1570622116. 
• Gordagh, George (1956). Ali, The Voice of Human Justice. ISBN 0-941724-24-7. (in Arabic)
• Ibn Ishaq (2002). The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0196360331. 
• Ibn Qutaybah. Al-Imama wa al-Siyasa. (In Arabic)
• Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (1997). The Book of the Major Classes (scattered volumes of English translation as issued by Kitab Bhavan). Ta-Ha Publishers, London. 
• Kattani, Sulayman (1983). Imam 'Ali: Source of Light, Wisdom and Might , translation by I.K.A. Howard. Muhammadi Trust of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 0950698660. 
• Kazemi, Reza Shah (2007). Justice and Remembrance: Introducing the Spirituality of Imam 'Ali. I. B. Tauris. 1845115260. 
• Lakhani, M. Ali.; Reza Shah-Kazemi and Leonard Lewisohn (2007). The Sacred Foundations of Justice in Islam: The Teachings of Ali Ibn Abi Talib, Contributor Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr. World Wisdom, Inc. 1933316268. 
• Motahhari, Murtaza (1981). Polarization Around the Character of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib. World Organization for Islamic Services, Tehran. 
• Rizvi , Sa'id Akhtar (1956). Imamate: The Vicegerency of the Prophet. 

• Ali ibn Abi Talib by I. K. Poonawala and E. Kohlberg in Encyclopedia Iranica
• Ali, article on Enyclopaedia Britannica Online

• Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib Nahjul Balagha
• Order to Maalik al-Ashtar, governor of Egypt (UN Legal Committee, member states voted that the document should be considered as one of the sources of International Law.) The United Nation and Imam Ali’s Constitution
• A advice ti his son Hasan ib Ali (This letter contains ethical advisement)
• 185 Sermon about the Oneness of Allah

• Biography from USC's MSA website

• The Life of the Commander of the Faithful Ali b. Abu Talib by Shaykh Mufid in Kitab al-Irshad
• The Commander of the Faithful: ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib
• Website devoted to the Life of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
• Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
• The Last Will of Ali ibn Abi Talib
• Alavi Bohras - The Walaayat and Love for Maulaa 'Ali

Ali Banu Hashim Cadet branch of the Banu Quraish Born: March 17 599 Died: February 28 661
Shī‘a Islam titles
Preceded by Muhammad	Imam 632 – 661	Succeeded by Hasan ibn Ali Disputed by Nizari
Sunni Islam titles
Preceded by Uthman	Rashidun Caliph 656 – 661	Succeeded by Muawiyah I

List of Sahaba
Abbad ibn Bishr	`Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib	`Abd Allah ibn `Abbas	`Abd Allah ibn `Abd al-Asad
Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud	`Abd Allah ibn Rawahah	Abd-Allah ibn Sailam	Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy
Abd-Allah ibn Umm-Maktum	Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr	Abd ar-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr	Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi
Abdullah ibn Ja'far	Abdullah ibn Sailam	Abu Ayyub al-Ansari	Abu Bakr
Abu Dharr al-Ghifari	Abu Dujana	Abu Fuhayra	Abu Hudhaifah ibn al-Mughirah
Abu Hurairah	Abu Sufyan ibn Harb	Abu Sufyan ibn al-Harith	Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib
Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah	Abu al-Aas ibn al-Rabiah	Abu al-Dardaa	Abu-Hudhayfah ibn Utbah
Abu-Musa al-Asha'ari	Abu-Sa'id al-Khudri	Akib ibn Usaid	Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami
Al-Baraa ibn Malik al-Ansari	Al-Nahdiah	Ali	Aminah bint Wahab
Ammar ibn Yasir	Amr ibn al-Jamuh	An-Numan ibn Muqarrin	Anas ibn Malik
Ashaab	Bashir ibn Sa'ad	Bilal ibn Ribah	Bilal ibn al-Harith
Fadl ibn Abbas	Fatima bint Asad	Fatima bint Hizam	Fayruz al-Daylami
Habibah bint Ubayd-Allah	Halima Sadia	Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib	Harithah bint al-Muammil
Hatib ibn Abi Baitah	Hisham ibn Al-Aas	Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman	Hujr ibn Adi
Ja`far bin Abī Tālib	Julaybib	Khabbab ibn al-Aratt	Khalid ibn Sa`id
Khunais ibn Hudhaifa	Kumayl ibn Ziyad	Khuzaymat ibn sabet	Layla bint al-Minhal
Lubaba bint al-Harith	Lubaynah	Malik Bin Deenar	Malik al-Dar
Malik ibn Ashter	Malik ibn Nuwayrah	Mus`ab ibn `Umair	Miqdad ibn Aswad
Muadh ibn Jabal	Mughira ibn Shu'ba	Muhammad Ibn Maslamah	Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr
Muhammad ibn Maslamah	Nawfal ibn Khuwaylid	Qatadah	Rab'ah ibn Umayah
Rabi'ah ibn al-Harith	Sa`ad ibn ar-Rabi`	Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas	Saffiyah bint ‘Abd al-Muttalib
Said ibn Aamir al-Jumahi	Sa'id ibn Zayd	Salim Mawla Abu Hudhayfah	Salman the Persian
Suhayb ar-Rumi	Ubaydah ibn al-Harith	Umamah bint Zainab	Umar
Umm Kulthum bint Ali	Umm Kulthum bint Jarwila Khuzima	Umm Shareek	Umm Ubays
`Uqbah ibn Amir	Urwah ibn Mas'ud	Usama ibn Zayd	Utbah ibn Ghazwan
Uthman ibn Hunaif	Wahb ibn Abd Manaf	Zayd ibn Arqam	Zayd ibn Harithah
Zayd ibn Thabit	Zaynab bint Ali

List of Ali's companions
Abu Dharr al-Ghifari	Khuzayma ibn Thabit	Miqdad ibn Aswad	Salman the Persian
Ammar ibn Yasir	Malik al-Ashtar	Habib ibn Mazahir	Kumayl ibn Ziyad
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr	Sa'sa'ah ibn Suhan	Zayd ibn Suhan	Hisham ibn 'Utbah
Abdullah ibn Budayl	Meesam Tammar	Adi ibn Hatim	Hujr ibn Adi
Asbagh ibn Nubatah	al-Harith al-A'war al-Hamdani	Amr ibn al-Humq al-Khaza'i	Abdullah ibn Hashim
Uways al-Qarni	`Abd Allah ibn `Abbas	Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali	Qays ibn Sa'd
Uthman ibn Hunaif	Mikhnaf ibn Sulaym	Sulayman ibn Surad	Jundab ibn Abdullah
Sulaym ibn Qays	Hamam ibn Shurayh	Abu al-Heysam ibn Tayyahan	Umm Salamah

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