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Aromanian language
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Aromanian Armãneashce, Armãneashti, Limba armãneascã |
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|---|---|---|
| Flag: |
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| Spoken in: | Greece, Albania, Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria, Republic of Macedonia | |
| Region: | Southeastern Europe | |
| Total speakers: | 300,000[1] | |
| Language family: | Indo-European Italic Romance Eastern Romance Aromanian |
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| Language codes | ||
| ISO 639-1: | none | |
| ISO 639-2: | rup | |
| ISO 639-3: | rup | |
| Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. | ||
Aromanian (also known as Macedo-Romanian, Arumanian or Vlach in most other countries; in Aromanian: limba armãneascã, armãneshce or armãneashti) is an Eastern Romance language spoken in Southeastern Europe. Its speakers are called Aromanians or Vlachs which is in widespread use to define the communities in Greece.
It was formed after the Roman conquest of the Balkans and shares many features with modern Romanian, having similar grammar and morphology. The most important dissimilarity between Romanian and Aromanian is the vocabulary, which in the case of the former has been influenced to a greater extent by its neighbouring Slavic languages, while Aromanian has borrowed much vocabulary from the Greek language with which it has been in close contact throughout its history. Also the difference between the two languages have been identified because of the different original languages from which the Aromanian and Romanian have emerged. Namely Aromanian has three different strata in its form: ancient stratum (made from the language spoken in Epirus, Thessaly, Illyria and Macedonia), the Latin stratum (brought from the Roman empire) and Greek or Hellenic stratum which was added during the Roman and Byzantine Empires. In its further development, the language acquired some Turkish words during the reign of the Ottoman Empire.[2]. This interpretation is particularly popular in the Republic of Macedonia as attested by the reference provided, which includes works motivated by modern balkan politics. Although partially correct with regards to the later phases of development it is vague in its interpretation of the ancient stratum. It almost certainly serves subtle revisionsit historical views regarding the languages of Greece's northern and western regions in ancient times. Any objective examination of the regions of Epirus, Thessaly, and Macedonia at the time of the Roman conquest would reveal they were under the influence of Alexander the Great's successor states and thoroughly hellenic. Regions which were inhabitted by non-hellenic speakers had also by this time been partially hellenised (Illyria, Thrace). Irrespective of the presence of various strata in the language it is highly improbable that the ancient stratum was not influenced by the Greek of the hellenistic era. Any pre-hellenic Illyrian, Thracian or other substratum would be difficult to substantiate given the dearth of lingusitic evidence for these languages. For Balkan history at the time of the Roman conquest see the encyclopaedia Brittanica entry on the Hellenistic Age.[3]
Neutral POV studies from outside groups on the Vlachs and their language in the balkans are few and far between. They mostly serve narrow nationalistic viewpoints and completely ignore the contemporary reality. Self determination would appear to be the best way forward for the remaining Aromanian speakers. Indeed some the best works on the subject originate from within the community itself.
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The Aromanian language and people are officially recognised as a minority in the Republic of Macedonia, but large Aromanian communities are also found in Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia as well as in Romania, where some Aromanians having migrated from the Balkans after the destruction of the Aromanian centers of Moscopole and Gramostea/Grammos region in Western Macedonia.
The Aromanian language has a degree of official status in the Republic of Macedonia where Aromanian is taught as an optional subject in some primary schools (in Skopje, Kruševo and Bitola) and Aromanian speakers have the right to use the language in court proceedings. Since 2006 the Aromanian language became the second official language, after standard Macedonian in the city of Kruševo. [4]
The language is similar to Romanian and its greatest difference lies in the vocabulary. There are far fewer Slavic words in Aromanian than in Romanian, and many more Greek words, a reflection of the close contact of Aromanian with Greek through much of its history.
It is generally considered that sometime between 800 and 1,200 years ago, the Vulgar Latin spoken in the Balkan provinces of the Roman Empire split into four languages: Daco-Romanian (today's Romanian language), Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian and Istro-Romanian. Some linguists consider the term Proto-Romanian not valid.[5]
Greek influences are much stronger in Aromanian than in other East Romance languages, especially because Aromanian used Greek words to coin new words (neologisms), while Romanian based most of its neologisms on Italian and French.
Also, with the coming of the Turks in the Balkans, Aromanian received some Turkish words as well. Still the lexical composition remains mainly Romance.
There are Aromanian dialects which are named after two respective places nowadays located in Albania and Greece: the Moscopole dialect (from the town of Moscopole, also known as the "Aromanian Jerusalem") and the Gramustean dialect (from the Gramostea/Grammos region). Many linguists think that the language spoken by the Farsherots differs significantly from the afore-mentioned and therefore it should be considered as a separate dialect. Also there are the dialects of Malovista, Gopesh, Beala Supra, Krusevo, and the dialects east of the Vardar River in Macedonia.
The grammar and morphology are very similar to those of Romanian and unlike the other Romance languages. The definite article is a clitic particle appended at the end of the word, both the definite and indefinite articles can be inflected, and nouns are classified in three genders, with neuter in addition to masculine and feminine.
Aromanian grammar does have some features that distinguish it from Romanian, an important one being the complete disappearance of verb infinitives which clearly puts it in the lower part of the Balkans. As such, the tenses and moods that in Romanian use the infinitive (like the future simple tense and the conditional mood) are formed in other ways in Aromanian. For the same reason, verb entries in dictionaries are given in their indicative mood, present tense, first person, singular form.
Aromanian verbs are classified in four conjugations. The table below gives some examples, indicating also the conjugation of the corresponding verbs in Romanian. [6]
| Conjugation | Aromanian (ind. pres. 1st sg.) |
Romanian (ind. pres. 1st sg.) |
Romanian (infinitive) |
English |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | cãntu dau lucredzu |
cânt dau lucrez |
a cânta I a da I a lucra I |
sing give work |
| II | ved şedu armãn |
văd şed rămân |
a vedea II a şedea II a rămâne III (or a rămânea II) |
see sit stay |
| III | duc cunoscu ardu |
duc cunosc ard |
a duce III a cunoaşte III a arde III |
carry, lead know burn |
| IV | mor fug îndulţescu |
mor fug îndulcesc |
a muri IV a fugi IV a îndulci IV |
die run sweeten |
The future tense is formed in the same way as in archaic Romanian, using an auxiliary invariable particle "va" (derived from the verb "to will") and the subjunctive mood.
| Aromanian | Romanian (archaic) |
English |
|---|---|---|
| va s-cãntu | va să cânt | I will sing |
| va s-cãntsã | va să cânţi | you (sg.) will sing |
| va s-cãntã | va să cânte | he/she will sing |
| va s-cãntãm | va să cântăm | we will sing |
| va s-cãntats | va să cântaţi | you (pl.) will sing |
| va s-cãntã | va să cânte | they will sing |
Whereas in Romanian the pluperfect tense (past perfect) is formed synthetically (as for instance in Portuguese), Aromanian uses a periphrastic construction with the auxiliary verb am (have) as the imperfect tense (aveam) and the past participle, as in French, except that French replaces avoir (have) with être (be) for some verbs. Aromanian shares this feature with Megleno-Romanian as well as other languages in the Balkan linguistic union.
Only the auxiliary verb inflects according to number and person: aveam, aveai, avea, aveamu, aveatã, avea, whereas the past participle doesn't change.[7]
| Aromanian | Megleno-Romanian | Romanian | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| avea mãcatã | vea mancat | mâncase | (he/she) had eaten |
| vea durmit | dormise | (he/she) had slept |
The gerund which exists in Aromanian is only applied to some verbs, not all. These verbs are:
- 1st conjugation: acatsã (acãtsãnda(lui)), portu, lucreashce, adiljeashce.
- 2nd conjugation: armãnã, cade, poate, tatse, veade.
- 3rd conjugation: arupã, dipune, dutse, dzãse, featse, tradze, scrie.
- 4th conjugation: apire, doarme, hivrie, aure, pate, avde.
Even before the incorporation of various Aromanian-speaking territories into the Greek state (1832, 1912), the language was subordinated to Greek, traditionally the Aromanians' language of education and religion. The historical studies cited below (mostly Capidan) show that especially after the fall of Moscopole (1788) the process of hellenisation via education and religion gained a strong impetus mostly among people doing business in the cities.
The Romanian state began opening schools for the Aromanians in the 1860s, but this initiative was regarded with suspicion by the majority of Greek Aromanians, who thought Romania was trying to assimilate them. 19th century travellers in the Balkans such as W M Leake and Henry Fanshawe Tozer noted that Vlachs in the Pindus and Macedonia were bi-lingual, reserving the latin dialect for inside the home. A notable and perhaps not so well known (outside Greece) fact regarding the Greek Aromanians is the contributions made by the community to the evolution and institutions of the Greek state during the 19th and early 20th Centuries. Athens Polytechnic- known as "Metsovion" (of Metsovo) - the Greek Vlach village in the Pindus from where its two main benefactors originated (Nikolaos Stournaras and Michail Tositsas), The Zappeion megaron, and the foundation of the Bank of Greece to name but a few were realised by the donations of notable Greek-Vlach benefactors. The fact that this occurred at a time when the majority of Vlachs resided outside the then Kingdom of Greece served to seriously undermine any Romanian claims to a persecuted minority group.
Romanian interference in the first half of the 20th century eventually led to antagonism between Aromanians with a Hellenic national consciousness ( pejoratively known in Romania as grecomans) who rejected what they perceived as Romanian propaganda, and those who espoused a Latin identity as promoted in the Romanian schools. According to the Romanian nationalist POV the "grecomans" and the Greek militia (known as "andarti") "terrorized" the Pindus region between 1903-1912 leading to a diplomatic crisis with Romania in 1911 (see Adina Berciu, Maria Petre: 2004). The Greek POV maintains that the newly incorporated Romanian state was seeking to divert attention from more serious territorial disputes with Russia and Bulgaria by using Greek Vlachs as leverage. It is noteworthy that Romanian nationalists touring the Greek Vlach villages were invariably struck by the lack of interest in the community.
By 1948, the new Soviet-imposed communist regime of Romania had closed all Romanian-run schools outside Romania and since the closure, there has been no formal education in Aromanian and speakers have been encouraged to learn and use the Greek language. This has been a process encouraged by the community itself and is not an explicit State policy. The decline and isolation of the Romanian orientated groups was not helped by the fact that they openly collaborated with the Axis powers of Italy and Germany during the occupation of Greece in WWII. Notably the vast majority of Vlachs fought in the Greek resistance and a number of their villages were destroyed by the Germans.
The issue of Aromanian-language education is a sensitive one, partly because of the resurgence in Romanian interest on the subject. Romanian nationalism maintains that Greek propaganda is still very strong in the area, inferring that Greeks define Aromanians as a sort of "latinized greeks". The fact remains that it is the majority of Greek Vlachs themselves that oppose the Romanian propaganda (those that espouse it having emigrated in the early 20thC), as they have done for the past 200 years. The Greek Vlachs oppose the introduction of the language into the education system as EU and leading Greek political figures have suggested, viewing it as an artificial distinction between them and other Greeks. For example, the former education minister, George Papandreou, received a negative response from Aromanian mayors and associations to his proposal for a trial Aromanian language education programme. The Panhellenic Federation of Cultural Associations of Vlachs (Πανελλήνια Ομοσπονδία Πολιτιστικών Συλλόγων Βλάχων) expressed strong opposition to EU's recommendation in 1997 that the tuition of Aromanian be supported so as to avoid its extinction.[2]. On a visit to Metsovo, Epirus in 1998, Greek President Costis Stephanopoulos called on Vlachs to speak and teach their language, but its decline continues.
A recent example of the sensitivity of the issue was the 2001 conviction (later overturned in the Appeals Court) to 15 months in jail of Sotiris Bletsas [3][4], a Greek Aromanian who was found guilty of "dissemination of false information" after he distributed informative material on minority languages in Europe (which included information on minority languages of Greece), produced by the European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages and financed by the European Commission. His conviction met with broad condemnation in Greece [5] and it emerged that his case was zealously pursued by Aromanian leaders who viewed themselves as patriotic Greeks and felt affronted by the suggestion that they belonged to a "minority". Bletsas was eventually acquitted [6].
for a comprehensive overview of the situation in Greece and the controversies surrounding the Vlach posistion since the fall of communism see conetmporary Vlach identity and reality in Greece
- Tatã a nostru
- cai eshci pi tser,
- s-ayisascã numa a Ta,
- s-yinã Amirãrilja a Ta,
- s-facã vreare-a Ta,
- cum pi tserlu,
- ashi sh-pisti loc.
- Pãne-a nostrã atsea di cathi dzuã dã-nã-u sh-azã
- shi ljartã-nã amãrtiile-a noastre
- ashi cum lji-ljirtãm sh-a amãrtoshlor a noshci.
- Shi nu nã-du la pirazmo,
- ala aveaglji-nã di atsel arãulu.
- Cã a Ta easte Amirãrilja shi puteare
- a Tatãlui shi Hiljlui shi a Ayului Spirit,
- torã, totãna shi tu eta-a etilor.
- Amen.
(the Lord's Prayer - source)
- Tuti iatsãli umineshtsã s-fac liberi shi egali la nãmuzea shi-ndrepturli. Eali suntu hãrziti cu fichiri shi sinidisi shi lipseashti un cu alantu sh-si poartã tu duhlu-a frãtsãljiljei.
- (Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights), translated by Dina Cuvata
The following text is given for comparison in Aromanian and in Romanian, with an English translation. The spelling of Aromanian is that decided at the Bitola Symposium of August 1997. The word choice in the Romanian version was such that it matches the Aromanian text, although in modern Romanian other words might have been more appropriate. The English translation is only provided as a guide to the meaning, with an attempt to keep the word order as close to the original as possible.
| Aromanian | Romanian | English |
|---|---|---|
| Vocala easti un son dit zburãrea-a omlui, faptu cu tritsearea sonorã, libirã sh-fãrã cheadicã, a vimtului prit canalu sonor (adrat di coardili vocali shi ntreaga gurã) icã un semnu grafic cari aspuni un ahtari son. | Vocala este un sunet din vorbirea omului, făcut cu trecerea sonoră, liberă şi fără piedică, a vîntului prin canalul sonor (compus din coardele vocale şi întreaga gură) sau un semn grafic care reprezintă un atare sunet. | The vowel is a sound in human speech, made by the sonorous, free and unhindered passing of the air through the sound channel (composed of the vocal cords and the whole mouth) or a graphic symbol corresponding to that sound. |
| Ashi bunãoarã, avem shasili vocali tsi s-fac cu vimtul tsi treatsi prit gurã, iu limba poati si s-aflã tu un loc icã altu shi budzãli pot si sta dishcljisi unã soe icã altã. | Aşa bunăoară, avem şase vocale ce se fac cu vîntul ce trece prin gură, unde limba poate să se afle într-un loc sau altul şi buzele pot să stea deschise un soi sau altul. | This way, we have six vowels that are produced by the air passing through the mouth, where the tongue can be in one place or another and the lips can be opened in one way or another. |
| Vocalili pot s-hibã pronuntsati singuri icã deadun cu semivocali i consoani. | Vocalele pot să fie pronunţate singure sau deodată cu semivocale sau consoane. | The vowels can be pronounced alone or together with semivowels or consonants. |
| English | Aromanian |
|---|---|
| Aromanian (person) | (m.) Armãn, (f.) Armãnã |
| Aromanian (language) | Limba armãneascã, Armãneashce |
| Greetings! | Buna dzuã! |
| What's your name? | Cum ti chljamã? |
| How are you? | Cum hits? (formal) Cum eshci? (informal) |
| What are you doing? | Tsi fats? |
| Goodbye! | S-nã videm cu ghine! |
| Bye! | Ciao! |
| Please. | Vã-plãcãrsescu. (formal) Ti-plãcãrsescu (informal) |
| Sorry. | Ãnj-easte jale. |
| Thank you. | Haristo. |
| Yes. | Da. |
| No. | Nu. |
| I don't understand. | Nu achicãsescu. |
| Where's the bathroom? | Iu easte toaletlu? |
| Do you speak English? | Zburats anglicheashce? |
| I am a student. | Mine escu studentu. |
| Vulgar Latin language | |
| Substratum | |
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| Daco-Romanian (Romanian, Moldovan, Vlach) Numbers | Phonology | Lexis |
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| Regulating bodies |
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| Aromanian | |
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| Megleno-Romanian | |
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| Istro-Romanian | |
- Capidan, Theodor. Aromânii, dialectul Aromân, Academia Română, Studii şi cercetări, XX 1932.
- Friedman, Victor A., "The Vlah Minority in Macedonia: Language, Identity, Dialectology, and Standardization" in Selected Papers in Slavic, Balkan, and Balkan Studies, ed. Juhani Nuoluoto, Martii Leiwo, Jussi Halla-aho. Slavica Helsingiensa 21. University of Helsinki, 2001. online
- Kahl, Thede, "Aromanians in Greece: Minority or Vlach-speaking Greeks?". Online: [7]
- Rosetti, Alexandru. Istoria limbii române, 2 vols., Bucharest, 1965-1969.
- Berciu-Drăghicescu, Adina; Petre Maria, "Şcoli şi Biserici româneşti din Peninsula Balcanică. Documente (1864-1948)", Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti, 2004.
- "The Little Prince" by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry in Aromanian. Njiclu amirārush. Translated by Maria Bara and Thede Kahl, ISBN 978-3-937467-37-5.
- ^ [1] Ethnologue report of maximum and minimum numbers
- ^ Зборник на трудови од мегународниот научен симпозиум „Власите на Балканот“, Скопје 2002/2004 (Collection of papers from the International Scientific Symposium "The Aromanians on the Balkans", Skopje 2002/2004).
- ^ http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9366870/Hellenistic
- ^ http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/doc97/edoc7728.htm
- ^ Зборник на трудови од мегународниот научен симпозиум „Власите на Балканот“, Скопје 2002/2004
- ^ Iancu Ianachievski-Vlahu Gramatica armãneascã simplã shi practicã, Crushuva 1993, 1997; Μιχάλη Μπογιάτζη Βλαχική ήτοι μάκεδοβλαχική γραμματική Βιέννη, and Κατσάνης Ν., Κ. Ντίνας, 1990, Γραμματική της κοινής Κουτσοβλαχικής.
- ^ Iancu Ianachievski- Vlahu Gramatica simplã shi practicã, Crushuva 1993, 1997.
- Aromanian Language website
- Στα Βλάχικα - In Vlach: A website about the Vlach language in Greece
- Ethnologue entry for Aromanian
- Asterios Koukoudis: Studies on the Vlachs
- Greek Helsinki Human Rights Organization: Aromanians (Vlachs) in Greece
- Conjugation of verbs in Aromanian and Istro-Romanian
- Romanian and the Balkans, with some references to Aromanian
- Aromaniacatholica, Aromanian with the traditional alphabet
- Greek Vlach website
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| Daco-Romanian | dialects • Moldovan • Vlach |
| Linguistics | Grammar (nouns, verbs, numbers) • Orthography • Alphabet (Ș, Ț, Ă, Â, Î) • Vocabulary (profanities) • Phonology |
| Historic evolution | Dacian (romanization) → Vulgar Latin (sound changes) → Proto-Romanian (substratum) → Eastern Romance (also Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, Istro-Romanian) |
| Institutions | Romanian Academy (Dicţionarul explicativ al limbii române) • Academy of Sciences of Moldova |
| Other | Romanianization • Balkan sprachbund - Romanians • History of the Moldovan language • Romanian Cyrillic alphabet (Moldovan) |