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Change management is a structured approach to change in individuals, teams, organizations and societies that enables the transition from a current state to a desired future state.

Contents 1 Background 2 Theories of change 2.1 Dynamic conservatism 2.2 Individual change management 2.3 Organizational change management 3 The role of the management 3.1 Working with assumptions 3.2 The constructionist principle 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading

The change referred to in this context includes a broad array of topics. From an individual perspective, the change may be a new behavior. From a business perspective, the change may be a new business process and/or a new technology. From a societal perspective, the change may be a new public policy or the passing of new legislation. Successful change, however, requires more than a new process, technology or public policy. Successful change requires the engagement and participation of the people involved. Change management provides a framework for managing the people side of these changes. The most recent research points to a combination of organizational change management tools and individual change management models for effective change to take place.

The evolution of the change management field stems from psychology, business and engineering. Hence, some models are derived from an organizational development perspective whereas others are based on individual behavioral models. For this reason, this section is divided into two sub-categories: Individual Change Management and Organizational Change Management.

This model by Schön ^[1]explores the inherent nature of organisations to be conservative and protect themselves from constant change. Schön recognises the increasing need, due to the increasing pace of change for this process to become far more flexible. This process being one of 'learning'. Very early on Schön recognised the need for what is now termed the 'learning organization'. These ideas are further expanded on within his frame work of 'reflection-in-action'^[2], the mapping of a process by which this constant change could be coped with.

An early model of change developed by Kurt Lewin described change as a three-stage process^[3]. The first stage he called "unfreezing". It involved overcoming inertia and dismantling the existing "mindset". Defense mechanisms have to be bypassed. In the second stage the change occurs. This is typically a period of confusion and transition. We are aware that the old ways are being challenged but we do not have a clear picture to replace them with yet. The third and final stage he called "refreezing". The new mindset is crystallizing and one's comfort level is returning to previous levels. Rosch (2002) argues that this often quoted three-stage version of Lewin’s approach is an oversimplification and that his theory was actually more complex and owed more to physics than behavioural science. Later theorists have however remained resolute in their interpretation of the force field model. This three-stage approach to change is also adopted by Hughes (1991) who makes reference to: "exit" (departing from an existing state), "transit" (crossing unknown territory), and "entry" (attaining a new equilibrium). Tannenbaum & Hanna (1985) suggest a change process where movement is from "homeostasis and holding on", through "dying and letting go" to "rebirth and moving on". Although elaborating the process to five stages, Judson (1991) still proposes a linear, staged model of implementing a change: (a) analysing and planning the change; (b) communicating the change; (c) gaining acceptance of new behaviours; (d) changing from the status quo to a desired state, and (e) consolidating and institutionalising the new state.

Some change theories are based on derivatives of the Kübler-Ross model from Elizabeth Kubler-Ross's book, "On Death and Dying." The stages of Kubler-Ross's model describe the personal and emotional states that a person typically encounters when dealing with loss of a loved one. Derivatives of her model applied in other settings such as the workplace show that similar emotional states are encountered as individuals are confronted with change.

A Formula for Change was developed by Richard Beckhard and David Gleicher and is sometimes referred to as Gleicher's Formula. The Formula illustrates that the combination of organisational dissatisfaction, vision for the future and the possibility of immediate, tactical action must be stronger than the resistance within the organisation in order for meaningful changes to occur.

The ADKAR model for individual change management was developed by Prosci with input from more than 1000 organizations from 59 countries. This model describes five required building blocks for change to be realized successfully on an individual level. The building blocks of the ADKAR Model include:

1. Awareness – of why the change is needed
2. Desire – to support and participate in the change
3. Knowledge – of how to change
4. Ability – to implement new skills and behaviors
5. Reinforcement – to sustain the change

Organizational change management includes processes and tools for managing the people side of the change at an organizational level. These tools include a structured approach that can be used to effectively transition groups or organizations through change. When combined with an understanding of individual change management, these tools provide a framework for managing the people side of change. People who are confronted by change will experience a form of culture-shock as established patterns of corporate life are altered, or viewed by people as being threatened. Employees will typically experience a form of "grief" or loss (Stuart, 1995).

Management's first responsibility (and that of administration in case of political changes) is to detect trends in the macroenvironment as well as in the microenvironment so as to be able to identify changes and initiate programs. It is also important to estimate what impact a change will likely have on employee behaviour patterns, work processes, technological requirements, and motivation. Management must assess what employee reactions will be and craft a change program that will provide support as workers go through the process of accepting change. The program must then be implemented, disseminated throughout the organization, monitored for effectiveness, and adjusted where necessary. Organisations exist within a dynamic environment that is subject to change due to the impact of various change "triggers", such as evolving technologies. To continue to operate effectively within this environmental turbulence, organisations must be able to change themselves in response to internally and externally initiated change. However, change will also impact upon the individuals within the organisation. Effective change management requires an understanding of the possible effects of change upon people, and how to manage potential sources of resistance to that change. Change can be said to occur where there is an imbalance between the current state and the environment.

Gabrielle O'Donovan has designed a strategic implementation plan for a culture transformation programme which is largely based on primary research. The first phase 'strategic planning and design' includes a series of steps; back to the drawing board to revisit the company purpose, form the strategic management team to oversee implementation, create programme vision and define strategy, organize the workforce and design the core programme and cultural embedding mechanisms that will support it. The second phase 'strategy implementation' includes these steps; communicate vision and roll-out, manage the human landscape plus maintain momentum and solidify ground made. The final phase 'evaluation and readjustment' focuses on the measuring of results and also planning for the future.

• Process Oriented Psychology by Arnold Mindell talks about the field in which each human relationship exists. Its application field, Worldwork, intends to transform systems by shifting roles that people unconsciously hold in a system.
• Dialogue (by David Bohm) is a new form of communication in large groups that is based on the suspension of assumptions, thus letting the common knowledge of a group emerge.
• Appreciative Inquiry, one of the most frequently applied approaches to organizational change, is partly based on the assumption that change in a system is instantaneous ('Change at the Speed of Imagination')
• Scenario Planning: Scenario planning provides a platform for doing so by asking management and employees to consider different future market possibilities in which their organizations might find themselves.
• Theory U of Otto Scharmer who describes a process in which change strategies are based on the emerging future rather than on lesson from the past.^[4]

The map is not the territory: The map/territory relation is proven by neuroscience and is used to signify that individual people do not have access to absolute knowledge of reality, but in fact only have access to a set of beliefs they have built up over time, about reality. It has been coined into a model by Chris Argyris called the Ladder of Inference^[5]. As a consequence, communication in change processes needs to make sure that information about change and its consequences is presented in such a way that people with different belief systems can access this information. Methods that are based on the Map/Territory Relation help people to:

• become more aware of their own thinking and reasoning (reflection),
• make their thinking and reasoning more visible to others (advocacy), and
• inquire into others' thinking and reasoning (inquiry).

Some methodological frameworks that are based on this principle are:

• Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP), an eclectic school of psychotherapy developed by Richard Bandler, John Grinder, Robert Dilts, and others;
• Circular Questioning and other techniques basically developed in Systemic Family Therapy;^[6].
• Gestalt Psychology, a theory of mind and brain that proposes that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies;
• The concept of the Fifth Discipline by Peter Senge and other management thinkers
• Scenario Thinking, a method that helps people to create stories about the future

• List of human resource management topics
• Strategic change for change theories in strategic management
• Force field analysis
• Change management process and AccuRev
• Business Technology Optimization

• Worren, N. A. M.; Ruddle, K.; and K. Moore. 1999. "From Organizational Development to Change Management: The Emergence of a New Profession," The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. 35 (3): 273-286.
• Beckhard, R. 1969. Organization Development: Strategies and Models, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
• Hiatt, J. 2006. ADKAR: A Model for Change in Business, Government and the Community, Learnng Center Publications, Loveland, CO.
• Kubler-Ross, E. 1970. On Death and Dying, Macmillan Company, England.
• Schön, D. A. (1973) Beyond the Stable State. Public and private learning in a changing society, Harmondsworth: Penguin
• Beitler, Michael 2006. "Strategic Organizational Change, Second Edition." Practitioner Press International.
• Rogers, E. M., (2003) Diffusion Of Innovation, New York: Free Press