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Feminism

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Christian feminism, a branch of feminist theology, seeks to interpret and understand Christianity in the scope of the equality of men and women morally, socially, spiritually and in leadership. Christian feminists believe their contributions are necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity. While there is no standard set of beliefs among Christian feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of biologically-determined characteristics such as gender. Their major issues are the ordination of women, male dominance in Christian marriage, and claims of spiritual deficiency and inferiority of the abilities of women to interpret and exposit scripture compared to men. They also are concerned with issues such as the balance of parenting between mothers and fathers and the overall treatment of women in the church.

Certain Christians who sympathize with women's issues are uncomfortable with the term feminism. One reason for this discomfort is the claim by some conservatives that Christian feminists are theological descendants of radical secular feminists such as Mary Daly, Betty Friedan, and Daphne Hampson.^{[citation needed]} However, Christian feminists appeared on the scene much earlier than secular feminists (see "History" below). Increasingly, the term Christian egalitarianism is preferred by those advocating gender equality and equity among Christians.

Contents 1 History 2 Issues 2.1 Women in church leadership 2.2 Women as spiritually deficient 2.3 Reproduction, sexuality and religion 2.4 Women submitting to husbands 2.5 Head coverings 3 The Bible 3.1 Some problematic passages 3.2 Supportive passages 4 Bibliography 5 References 6 See also 7 External links

The Greek philosopher Aristotle had taught that women are intrinsically inferior. Aristotle's discriminatory view was taken over the far more egalitarian views of Plato and Socrates by notable theologians such as Tertullian, Augustine, Chrysostom, and Thomas Aquinas.^{[citation needed]} Protestant reformers John Calvin and John Knox also believed that men were spiritually and morally superior to women. Others, such as Margaret Fell and Sojourner Truth, were women. In the early 1800s some Christians began to teach that women are not innately inferior. Between 1808 and 1930, there appeared printed arguments in support of women's ministries. Thus emerged the first wave of feminists. They advocated that the theology of gender and justice should be based on a whole-Bible approach rather than "proof texting" of isolated passages. Some notable first-wave Christian feminists:

• Fredrik Franson (1852–1908). Founded the Evangelical Alliance Mission.^[1]
• A. J. Gordon (1836–1895). The founder and first president of Gordon College.^[2] "'Dr. A. J. Gordon stood by me steadily,' Frances Willard recalled."^[3]
• Katharine Bushnell (1856–1946). Medical doctor, scholar, missionary, activist.
• Catherine Booth (1829–1890). Co-founder with her husband of the Salvation Army.
• Frances Willard (1839–1898). Preached at D. L. Moody revivals. President of Women's Christian Temperance Union.

Main article: Ordination of women

Feminism has affected many aspects of religion. In liberal branches of Protestant Christianity (and, notably, in some theologically conservative denominations, such as Assemblies of God^[4]) women are ordained as clergy, and in Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist Judaism, women are ordained as rabbis and cantors. Within these Christian and Jewish groups, women have gradually obtained more positions of power; their perspectives now have greater influence in developing new statements of belief.

The leadership of women in religious matters continues to be restricted by many denominations. The Roman Catholic church, and fundamentalist Protestant traditions such as the (American) Southern Baptist convention^[5], and the American "non-denominational" movement (that includes the Church of Christ and megachurches)^[6] generally exclude women from entering the priesthood and other clerical positions, limiting women to the roles of nuns or laypeople.^[7]

Understanding whether women are spiritually deficient to men partly hinges on whether women are equipped spiritually with discernment to teach. The following passages also relate to whether women are inherently spiritually discerning as men:

• Galatians 3:28. "There is neither…male nor female for all are one in Christ Jesus."
• Deborah of the Old Testament was a prophetess and "judge of Israel"^[8]
• Genesis 2:20. The word translated "help" or "helper" is the same Hebrew word, "ēzer," which the Old Testament uses 17 times to describe the kind of help that God brings to His people in times of need; e.g., "Thou art my help (ēzer} and my deliverer," and "My help (ēzer) comes from the Lord."
• Genesis 3:16. "To the woman he (God) said, 'I will greatly increase your pains in childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth children, yet your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you.'"

In the United States, conservative religious groups are often at philosophical odds with feminist and liberal religious groups over abortion and the use of birth control.^[9] These philosophical oppositions are manifest in courtroom and legislative battles, even making their way to the United States Supreme Court.^[10] Scholars like sociologist Flann Campbell have noted that conservative religious denominations tend to restrict male and female sexuality^{[11][12] [13]}by prohibiting or limiting birth control use^[14], and condemning abortion as a sin likely punished by damnation to hell by God. ^[15][16] As a result of these religious claims, mainline Protestant denominations (e.g. the Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Methodist, United Church of Christ, Unitarian Universalist, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of America traditions), as well as Jewish denominations and the group Catholics for a Free Choice have formed the Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice.^[17] The RCRC often works as a feminist organization and in conjunction with other American feminist organizations^[18]

The following passages relate to whether wives must submit to their husbands:

• Ephesians 5:22 Women are told to submit to their husbands.
• Peter&verse=3:6&src=! 1 Peter 3:6 Sarah obeyed Abraham and called him lord

In 1Corinthians 11:3–17, women are commanded to cover their heads in worship to show they recognize their husband's authority coming from the fact that man was created first and that he was created in God's image. Most Christians today apply a cultural exemption to this verse to agree that women no longer need to cover their heads when praying or prophesying.

A major concern to Christian Feminism is how people interpret the Bible, particularly the influence of one's set of presuppositions on understanding the Bible. The same passages that one denomination takes to say that women may not preach, a Christian feminist might interpret otherwise. An important factor that influences a Christian feminist's understanding of a passage is taking into account the specific cultural setting and circumstance of the time that the passage was written.

A variety of biblical passages are used as authority to prohibit women from having leadership roles, primarily in marriage and the church.

• Acts 1:21. Criteria for apostleship include being male.
• 1Corinthians 11:3–16. Women are commanded to cover their heads in worship to show they recognize their husband's authority coming from the fact that man was created first and that man was created in Gods' image.
• 1Corinthians 14:34–35. Women are told to be silent in church.
• Ephesians 5:22 Women are told to submit to their husbands.
• 1Timothy 2:11–12. Women are told to be quiet in church because man was created first, and woman was deceived and sinned first.
• Revelation 2:20 The church of Thyatira was rebuked for letting a women teach that the Lord referred to as Jezebel.
• Genesis 3:17 The first sin Adam committed was that he listened to his wife.
• Job 2:10 Job rebukes his wife for speaking as foolish women.

• Exodus 15:20. Miriam is called a prophetess.
• Judges 4:4. Deborah, a prophetess, the wife of Lappidoth, was leading Israel at as a Judge and General.
• Proverbs 31 10, 29. Women are commended when they are virtuous. They are valued as breadwinners. This 'virtuous' woman sold real estate and textiles and her husband was not the breadwinner for the family.
• Nehemiah 6:14. The prophetess Noadiah is mentioned. A false prophet who antagonized Nehemiah.
• Isaiah 8:3. An anonymous prophetess is mentioned.
• Joel 2:28–29. A prophetic forecast that women and men alike will prophesy.
• Luke 2:34–38Anna, the prophetess was present for the circumcision of baby Jesus.
• Acts 9:36. A woman, Tabitha, Dorcas in Greek, is called a disciple. Who was full of good works and alms deeds.
• Romans 16:1. A woman, Phoebe, is called a "diakonos,"
• Galatians 3:28. "There is neither…male nor female for all are one in Christ Jesus."

• Patricia M. Berliner, Ph.D., Touching Your Lifethread and Revaluing the Feminine Cloverdale Books (2007) ISBN 978-1-929569-20-5 [1]
• Mimi Haddad, Ph.D., "Egalitarian Pioneers: Betty Friedan or Catherine Booth?" Priscilla Papers, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Autumn 2006)
• Pamela Sue Anderson, A feminist philosophy of religion: the rationality and myths of religious belief (Oxford; Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1998)
• Pamela Sue Anderson and Beverley Clack, eds., Feminist philosophy of religion: critical readings (London: Routledge, 2004)
• John Temple Bristow, What Paul Really Said About Women: An Apostle's Liberating Views on Equality in Marriage, Leadership and Love (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988)

1. ^ http://www.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/GUIDES/087.htm (1) July 10, 1888—Evangelistkurs. Franson's announcement of Evangelist Course in Oslo beginning July 10, 9 a.m. He recounts blessings received through those who have worked as Evangelists, especially in the inland districts, since last winter—and especially so through the women evangelists. (2) Spring 1892—Franson's announcement concerning the founding and work of "The Scandinavian-American Women's Alliance Mission to Dark Places." (3) April 1896—Profeterande Dottrar by Franson and [English] Prophesying Daughters by Franson—concerning women's' position in regard to evangelization.
2. ^ http://www.gcts.edu/studentlife/ethos.php#women A.J. Gordon was a well-known advocate, in his day, of the preaching ministry of women.
3. ^ http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jga/3.3/blum.html Blum, Edward (Baylor University).Paul Has Been Forgotten: Women, Gender, and Revivalism during the Gilded Age.
4. ^ The Role of Women in Ministry (PDF) 7. The General Council of the Assemblies of God (1990-08-14).
5. ^ http://www.sbc.net/aboutus/pswomen.asp
6. ^ http://www.jstor.org/view/0034673x/ap060107/06a00020/1?frame=noframe&userID=83d82910@unlv.edu/01cc99331400501c40fcb&dpi=3&config=jstor
7. ^ http://www.springerlink.com/content/l5p31j7w2q316882/
8. ^ Deborah the Prophetess
9. ^ http://www.plannedparenthood.org/news-articles-press/politics-policy-issues/abortion-access/antichoice-organizations-6127.htm
10. ^ http://pewforum.org/news/display.php?NewsID=10051
11. ^ http://www.jstor.org/view/00324728/di980713/98p0182w/0?frame=noframe&userID=83d82910@unlv.edu/01cc99331400501c40fcb&dpi=3&config=jstor
12. ^ http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yUWz24sVu54C&oi=fnd&pg=PP13&dq=women+southern+baptist+convention&ots=2zoqp_H0w-&sig=4Jj4aGKdQ_Y98aJrpSg5vM5O8W8#PPA10,M1
13. ^ http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=%22Flann+Campbell%22&btnG=Search&as_subj=soc
14. ^ http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html
15. ^ http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/baptist/sbcabres.html
16. ^ http://www.bible-knowledge.com/Sin-of-Abortion.html
17. ^ http://www.rcrc.org/about/members.cfm
18. ^ http://www.nwlc.org/details.cfm?id=1223§ion=Reproductive%20Rights%3A%20General%20Materials

• Christian egalitarianism
• Christian views about women
• Christian views of marriage
• Complementarian

• Christian Feminist articles and books