From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Color film" redirects here. For the motion picture equivalent, see Color motion picture film.

This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. Please help recruit one or improve this article yourself. See the talk page for details. Please consider using {{Expert-subject}} to associate this request with a WikiProject

The first permanent color photograph, taken by James Clerk Maxwell in 1861.

An 1877 color photo by Louis Ducos du Hauron, a French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping, yellow, cyan and red subtractive color elements can clearly be seen.

Early color photograph from Russia, created by Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii as part of his work to document the Russian Empire from 1909 to 1915

An undated color photograph between 1905 and 1915 by Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii

Color photography is photography that uses media capable of representing colors which are produced chemically during the photographic processing phase. It is contrasted with black-and-white photography, which uses media capable only of showing shades of gray, and does not include hand colored photographs. Some examples of color photography include prints, color negatives, transparencies and slides, and roll and sheet films.

The experimentation with creating photographs that mirrored the colors of real life began as early as 1861. It is important to be able to identify different photographic processes because each process may require different methods of preservation.

• 1850: Levi Hill claims to invent color photography, though his claims were highly contested
• 1861: The first known permanent color photograph is taken by James Clerk Maxwell
• 1877: Louis Ducos du Hauron experiments with subtractive color (see below)
• 1891: Lippmann process
• 1896: Joly color screen process
• 1907 (patented 1904): Autochrome
• 1908: Dufaycolor (color transparencies)
• 1908: Finlay Colour (color transparencies)^[clarify]
• 1909–1915: Prokudin-Gorskii's color documentary photography in Russia
• 1919 (invented 1905): Tri-Color Carbro prints^[clarify]
• 1935: Kodachrome (16mm motion picture film)
• 1936: Kodachrome (35mm still film)
• 1936: Agfacolor (transparency film)
• 1940: Ektachrome (Reversal film|slide film)
• 1942: Kodacolor (color negative process for still photography and later motion pictures)
• 1946: Dye transfer prints (imbibition process)
• 1965: Polacolor by Polaroid (dye diffusion transfer process)^[clarify]

The first modern ("integrated tri-pack") color film, Kodachrome, was introduced by the Eastman Kodak Company in 1935, using three colored emulsions. Most modern color films, except Kodachrome, are based on technology developed for Agfacolor (as "Agfacolor Neue") in 1936. (In this newer technology, chromogenic dye couplers are already within the emulsion layers, rather than having to be carefully diffused in during development.) Instant color film was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.

1. Additive: The colors are added as colored lights. In this system, the most common set of primary colors is red, green and blue (RGB). Maxwell's experiment was of this type, as are screen-plate methods, such as Autochrome. Modern digital photographs seen on a computer monitor are also viewed by addition of light from an RGB phosphor array^[clarify].
2. Subtractive: Colors are subtracted from white light by dyes or pigments. In this system the most common set of primary colors is cyan, magenta, yellow and black (CMYK). Ducos du Hauron made several pictures by this method in the late 1800s.

Several commercial print methods were devised using the subtractive technique during the 1930s (see e.g. Coe, ref 1), for printing from "separation negatives". Kodachrome was the first commercially-available film of this type.

• Color negative film forms a negative (color-reversed) image when exposed, which is permanently fixed during developing. This is then exposed onto photographic paper to form a positive image.
• Color reversal film, also known as slide film, forms a negative image when exposed, which is reversed to a positive image during developing. The film can then be projected onto a screen.

Numerous factors can deteriorate and even destroy photographs. Some examples include:

• High temperature and high relative humidity (RH)
• Air pollution and dirt
• Light exposure
• Biological threats such as fungi and insects
• Residual processing chemicals
• Base and emulsion deterioration
• Handling and usage
• Improper storage and enclosures
• Disasters and emergencies

However, it is important to understand that color photographic materials are not permanent and by nature are instable. Chromogenic color photographs, for example, are composed of yellow, magenta, and cyan organic dyes which fade at different rates. Even when in dark storage and enclosed in the proper archival materials, deterioration is unavoidable, but fading, color shifting, and discoloration can be delayed when given the proper preservation care.

Carol Brower articulates the need for preservation in her contributions to Henry Wilhelm's lauded text on color photography. She states, "To a great extent, the value of an object, whether artistic or historical, depends on its physical condition…with a work of art, however, deterioration changes its very essence." The value is dependent on the physical condition that starts with the quality of the paper a photograph is printed upon. With high quality film, paper and matting, modern photographs can last a very long time.

A long life expectancy also requires minimal usage and maximum storage, but art and historical artifacts exist for consumption and enrichment and without exhibition these objects have no public audience. Reading rooms requiring lengthy application processes for use and rigid security measures limit their consumers to scholars, researchers and students. Digitization of collections at the item level will help to create surrogates that can be used for research purposes, lessening use of the original photograph. At the Morgan Library, the public can access materials through special exhibitions such as their Bob Dylan exhibit of 2007 and also through a largely unfinished digitization project by the Christian Art Index. Limited access to a collection undermines the motivation for preservation by marginalizing the population who stands to benefit from a preserved item. Photographs have the potential to reach across language barriers with their implied meanings, and so the original content should be considered of value. The time an item spends away from its repository and waiting for repairs is wasted time that might be better used being available to researchers. Deterioration of an object can detract from the item's original value. Preservation is a means of maintaining that value.

In the art world, there is another side to this issue that is concerned with the monetary value of an image. Galleries in the Chelsea district of New York City send new works to conservation facilities in order to assure new collectors that an art purchase will become a financially solvent investment. Some skeptics ascertain that art conservation practices exist for the preservation of investments and not for the care of fine art. When artists offer older works or pieces created during their art education that have not been treated by conservators, galleries face a difficult situation because later conservation efforts could jeopardize aesthetics and, as the skeptics argue, will simply not earn the gallery as much money because they can’t be guaranteed. These works often cannot be preserved at all. Most living photographers have begun to produce their recent works using sophisticated film technologies and durable papers. If modern photographs cannot be salvaged without significant threat to content, older items of significance present an even larger problem to the preservation community.

It is common for art historians to place a high value on untouched, original works despite their current condition. Limiting preservation to the best practice standards established by the preservation community is advised. This philosophy benefits future researchers who will value these images for their content and context. We must examine carefully the changes we decide to make when preserving an object, as these repairs will be permanent. In color photography, a balance between viable preservation of context should be weighted carefully with the same in the content.

Three signs of age that affect color photography are:

• Dark fading
• Light fading
• Highlight staining

Dark fading occurs regardless of the procedures taken to preserve a photograph and is unavoidable. It is instigated by temperature and RH. Cyan dyes will typically fade more quickly, which will make the image appear too red in color.

Light fading occurs when materials are exposed to light, e.g. while on display. The intensity of the light source and ultraviolet (UV) rays will effect the rate of change and fade. Magenta dyes will typically fade the quickest.

Highlight staining occurs with older color photographic papers, and is a yellowing of the border and highlight areas of a photograph.

In general, the colder the storage, the longer the "life" of color photographs. Frost-free refrigeration, more commonly known as cold storage (below freezing) is one of the most effective ways to bring a halt to developing damage to color photographic materials. However, selecting this type of storage environment is costly and requires special training to remove items and return items. Therefore, cool storage (above freezing) is more common and less costly, which requires that the temperature is consistently between 10°C – 15°C (50°F – 60°F) with 30–40% relative humidity with special attention to dew point to eliminate concerns for condensation. General dark storage in light tight enclosures and storage boxes is always advised for individual items. When materials are exposed to light during handling, usage, or display - light sources should be UV-filtered and intensity kept at minimum. In storage areas, 200–400 lux is recommended.

The usage of enclosures is the easiest method of preserving photographic materials from being damaged through handling and light exposure. All protective materials should pass the Photographic Activity Test (PAT) as described both by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in standard IT9.2-1988, and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in standard 18916:2007(E), Photography – Processed Photographic Materials – Photographic Activity Test for Enclosure Materials. The PAT is an archival science test that determines what kind of enclosures will preserve, prevent, and/or prolong from further deterioration while in storage.

It is recommended that each item have its own enclosure and that each enclosure is of the appropriate size. Archival enclosures may come in two different forms: paper or plastic. Choosing either option has its advantages and disadvantages.

• Paper enclosures should be non-acidic, lignin-free paper and may come in either buffered or non-buffered stock. An advantage of paper is that it is generally less costly than plastic enclosures. The opaque quality of paper protects photographs from light exposure, and the porous quality protects photographs from humidity and gaseous pollutants. However, for images to be viewed, they must be removed from the enclosure, putting the materials at risk for mishandling and/or vandalism.

• Archival quality plastic enclosures are made of uncoated polyester, polypropylene, or polyethylene. The transparent quality of plastic lends itself to easier access to the image because there is no extra step to remove the photograph. Plastic is also less resistant to tears in comparison to paper. Some disadvantages include being prone to static electricity and a risk of ferrotyping (the act of moisture becoming trapped between the enclosure and item, causing the materials to stick to one another).

After photographic materials are individually enclosed, housing or storage containers provide another protective barrier such as folders and boxes made from archival paperboard as addressed in ISO Standards 14523 and 10214. Sometimes these containers have to be custom-made in order to properly store odd sizes. In general, flat storage of in boxes is recommended because it provides more stable support, particularly for materials that are in more fragile condition. Still, boxes and folders should never be over-filled with materials.

This short section requires expansion.

• U.S. Patent 2,059,884  — Color photography

• George Eastman
• William Eggleston
• Frederick Lanchester
• Gabriel Lippmann
• Luis Marden
• Stephen Shore
• Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

• Color film (motion picture)
• Chromogenic
• Color printing
• Color television
• Film colorization
• Hand-colouring
• Potassium ferricyanide
• Timeline of invention

• Coe, Brian, Colour Photography: the first hundred years 1840-1940, Ash & Grant, 1978.
• Coote, Jack, The Illustrated History of Colour Photography, Fountain Press Ltd., 1993, ISBN 0-86343-380-4
• Eastman Kodak Company. (1979). Preservation of photographs. Kodak publication, no. F-30. [Rochester, N.Y.]: Eastman Kodak Co.
• Great Britain, & Paine, C. (1996). Standards in the museum care of photographic collections 1996. London: Museums & Galleries Commission. ISBN 0948630426
• Keefe, L. E., & Inch, D. (1990). The life of a photograph: archival processing, matting, framing, storage. Boston: Focal Press. ISBN 0240800249 9780240800240
• Lavédrine, B., Gandolfo, J.-P., & Monod, S. (2003). A guide to the preventive conservation of photograph collections. Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute. ISBN 0892367016 9780892367016
• Photograph preservation and the research library. (1991). Mountain View, Ca: The Research Libraries Group. ISBN 0879852127
• Reilly, J. M. (1998). Storage guide for color photographic materials. Albany, N.Y.: University of the State of New York ... [et al.].
• Ritzenthaler, M. L., Vogt-O'Connor, D., & Ritzenthaler, M. L. (2006). Photographs: archival care and management. Chicago: Society of American Archivists. ISBN 1931666172 9781931666176
• Sipley, Louis Walton, A Half Century of Color, Macmillan, 1951
• Time-Life Books. (1982). Caring for photographs: display, storage, restoration. Life library of photography. Alexandria, Va: Time-Life Books. ISBN 0809444208
• Weinstein, R. A., & Booth, L. (1977). Collection, use, and care of historical photographs. Nashville: American Association for State and Local History. ISBN 091005021X
• Wilhelm, H. G., & Brower, C. (1993). The permanence and care of color photographs: traditional and digital color prints, color negatives, slides, and motion pictures. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.: Preservation Pub. Co. ISBN 0911515003
• Wythe, D. (2004). Museum archives: an introduction. Chicago: Society of American Archivists. ISBN 1931666067 9781931666060

• Internet Resources compiled by the Northeast Document Conservation Center
• "Care and Handling and Storage of Photographs" by Mark Roosa (IFLA)
• Conservation Register
• Image Permanence Institute
• Library of Congress - Information Leaflet: Photographs
• National Archives and Records Administration - Cold Storage Handling Guidelines
• National Park Service. Conserve-O-Gram (select PDF versions on menu)
• Henry Wilhelm

• Library of Congress Prokudin-Gorskii collection

• Library of Congress List of Photographic Preservation Supplies

• American National Standards Institute^[clarify]