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(Arguments critical to religion in general, or specific to Monotheism, such as the Existence of God, not dealt with here. This page describes criticism specific to Islam only, looking at either the historicity of Islam or at the results of its practice.)

Critics of Islam have existed since Islam's formative stages. Early written criticism came from Christians, prior to 1000 CE.^[1] Later there appeared criticism from the Muslim world itself, and also from Jewish writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.^[2][3][4][5] In the modern era, criticism has come from people both inside and outside Islam, on a wide variety of topics.

Islam has been criticised on the grounds that it is not true (on philosophical, historical, scientific or theological grounds), and that it is not moral (on ethical and political grounds).

One such topic is Islam's tolerance (or intolerance) of criticism, and the treatment accorded apostates in Islamic law.^[6] Another area focuses on the morality of the life of Muhammad, the founder of Islam, both in his public and personal life.^[5][7] Issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the Qu'ran, the Islamic holy book, are also discussed by critics.^[8][9] Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Islamic nations, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice.^[10][11] Recently, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.^[12]

The earliest surviving written criticisms of Islam are to be found in the writings of Christians, who came under the early dominion of the Islamic empire. One such Christian was John of Damascus (born c. 676), who was familiar with Islam and Arabic. The second chapter of his book, The Fount of Wisdom, titled 'Concerning Heresies' presents a series of discussions between Christians and Muslims. John claimed an Arian monk influenced Muhammad and viewed the Islamic doctrines as nothing more than a hotchpotch culled from the Bible. Writing on the Islam's claim of Abrahamic ancestry, John explained that the Arabs were called "Saracens" because they were "empty of Sarah". They were called "Hagarenes" because they were "the bastard descendants of the slave-girl Hagar". ^[13] According to John V. Tolan, a Professor of Medieval History, John's biography of Muhammad is based on deliberate distortions of Muslim traditions. ^[14]

The Hadith (written between 844 and 874) contain accounts of criticism of Islam at the time of Muhammad from the pagan, Jewish and Christian inhabitants of Arabia.

Over the years there have been several famous Muslim critics and skeptics of Islam from within the Islamic world itself. In tenth and eleventh-century Syria there lived a blind poet called Al-Ma'arri. According to Ibn Warraq, he became well-known for a poetry that was affected by a "pervasive pessimism." He labeled religions in general as "noxious weeds," and said that Islam does not have a monopoly on truth. He had particular contempt for the ulema, writing that:

In 1280, the Jewish philosopher Ibn Kammuna criticized Islam in his book Examination of the Three Faiths. He reasoned that incompatibility of sharia with the principles of justice undercuts Muhammad's claims of being a perfect man: "there is no proof that Muhammad attained perfection and the ability to perfect others as claimed."^[15] The philosopher thus concluded that people usually convert to Islam from ulterior motives:

According to Bernard Lewis, just as it is natural for a Muslim to assume that the converts to his religion are attracted by its truth, it is equally natural for the convert's former coreligionists to look for baser motives and Ibn Kammuna's list seems to cover most of such nonreligious motives. ^[16]

Maimonides, one of the foremost 12th century rabbinical arbiters and philosophers, sees the relation of Islam to Judaism as primarily theoretical. Maimonides has no quarrel with the strict monotheism of Islam, but finds fault with the practical politics of Muslim regimes. He also considered Islamic ethics and politics to be inferior to their Jewish counterparts. Maimonides criticised what he perceived as the lack of virtue in the way Muslims rule their societies and relate to one another.^[4]

Main article: Medieval Christian view of Muhammad

• Some medieval ecclesiastical writers portrayed Muhammad as possessed by Satan, a "precursor of the Antichrist" or the Antichrist himself.^[5]

• Denis the Carthusian wrote two treatises to refute Islam at the request of Nicholas of Cusa, Contra perfidiam Mahometi, et contra multa dicta Sarracenorum libri quattuor and Dialogus disputationis inter Christianum et Sarracenum de lege Christi et contra perfidiam Mahometi.^[17]

• The Tultusceptru de libro domni Metobii, an Andalusian manuscript with unknown dating, shows how Muhammad (called Ozim, from Hashim) was tricked by Satan into adulterating an originally pure divine revelation. The story argues God was concerned about the spiritual fate of the Arabs and wanted to correct their derivation from the faith. He then sends an angel to the monk Osius who orders him to preach to the Arabs. Osius however is in ill-health and orders a young monk, Ozim, to carry out the angel's orders instead. Ozim sets out to follow his orders, but gets stopped by an evil angel on the way. The ignorant Ozim believes him to be the same angel that spoke to Osius before. The evil angel modifies and corrupts the original message given to Ozim by Osius, and renames Ozim Muhammad. From this followed the erroneous teachings of Islam, according to the tultusceptrum.^[18]

• According to many Christians, the coming of Muhammad was foretold in the Holy Bible. According to the monk Bede this is in Genesis 16:12, which describes Ishmael as "a wild man" whose "hand will be against every man". Bede says about Muhammad: "Now how great is his hand against all and all hands against him; as they impose his authority upon the whole length of Africa and hold both the greater part of Asia and some of Europe, hating and opposing all."^[19]

• In 1391 a dialog was believed to have occurred between Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos and a Persian scholar in which the Emperor stated:

The first sentence of this quotation, when repeated by Pope Benedict XVI in 2006, lead to a riots, firebombing of churches and a Fatwa against the life of the Pope (see Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy).

See also: Orientalism

During the late 19th and early 20th century, the new methods of Higher criticism were applied to the Qu'ran, claiming that it had a non-divine origin. Ignaz Goldziher and Henri Corbin wrote about the influence of Zoroastrianism, and others wrote on the influence of Judaism, Christianity and Sabianism ^[20]

Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister through most of World War 2, was a strong critic of the effects Islam had on its believers. He stated in his 1899 book "The River War" ^[21]:

Notable contemporary critics include:

• Robert Spencer an American writer on Islam. He is the author of six books, including two bestsellers, on topics related to Islam and terrorism. He is the founder and director of the Jihad Watch and Dhimmi Watch websites that focus on Islamist terrorism-related events and various Jihad-activity worldwide.^[22]
• Daniel Pipes an American historian and analyst who specializes in the Middle East. He has written or co-written 18 books, maintains a blog, and lectures around the world presenting his analysis of world trends. His work contends that militant Islam is incompatible with democracy, freedom, multiculturalism, and human rights.
• Bat Ye'or an Egyptian-born British historian ^[23] and scholar ^[24] specialising in the history of non-Muslims in the Middle East, and in particular the history of Christian and Jewish dhimmis living under Islamic governments.^[25]
• V. S. Naipaul, a Nobel prize winning, Trinidadian-born British novelist of Hindu heritage, who has sowed controversy with his criticism of Islam. He claims it has had a "calamitous effect on converted peoples", destroying their ancestral culture and history.^[26]
• Brigitte Gabriel, founder of American Congress For Truth and author of Because They Hate.
• Oriana Fallaci, an Italian journalist and novelist who has written three short books after the events of September the 11th advancing the argument that the "Western world is in danger of being engulfed by radical Islam". Two of them, The Rage and The Pride and The Force of Reason have been translated into English by Fallaci.^[27]

Several scholars do not self-identify as critics of Islam but are not afraid to criticise some of its aspects:

• Bernard Lewis holds that unbelievers, slaves, and women are considered fundamentally inferior to other groups of people under Islamic law. He does write that even the equality of free adult male Muslims represented a very considerable advance on the practice of both the Greco-Roman and the ancient Iranian world.^[28][29]
• John Esposito has written many introductory texts on Islam and the Islamic world. For example, he has addressed issues like the rise of militant Islam, the veiling of women, and democracy.^[30][31] Esposito emphatically argues against what he calls the "pan-Islamic myth". He thinks that "too often coverage of Islam and the Muslim world assumes the existence of a monolithic Islam in which all Muslims are the same." To him, such a view is naive and unjustifiably obscures important divisions and differences in the Muslim world.^[32]
• Patricia Crone, is a scholar, author and historian of early Islamic history working at the Institute for Advanced Study. She co-authored the controversial Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World, a book that researched the early history of Islam, coming to conclusions at variance with the traditional view.
• Geert Wilders, a Dutch politician that wants to ban the Koran in the Netherlands, because he believes it conflicts with the Dutch laws and calls for violence in general.

• Michel Onfray, a French philosopher and ardent supporter of atheism. Onfray attacks Islam along with other monotheistic religions, speaks of "muslim fascism" that had risen with the Islamic Revolution in Iran and considers Islamic teachings to be "structurally archaic". However, he considers Western consumerist culture to be flawed as well.^[33]
• Richard Dawkins an outspoken antireligionist, atheist, secular humanist, and sceptic, and he is a supporter of the Brights movement.^[34]. Dawkins' impassioned advocacy of evolution has earned him the appellation "Darwin's rottweiler".^[35]
• Sam Harris, author of the bestseller The End of Faith, who is skeptical that moderate Islam is even possible, arguing that Muslim extremism is a consequence simply of taking the Qur'an literally.^[36] This book has a chapter entitled "The problem with Islam" where puts forward arguments specific to Islam saying "There are good beliefs and there are bad ones and it should now be obvious to everyone that Muslims have more than their fair share of the latter".^[37]
• Christopher Hitchens a vociferous critic of what he describes as "fascism with an Islamic face"
• Richard Carrier a philosopher and ancient historian, frequently criticises Islam in his writings on the Secular Web.^[38]

• Pat Robertson who expresses the view that "Islam wants to take over the world and is not a religion of peace", and that radical Muslims are "satanic", and that Osama Bin Laden was a "true follower of Muhammad".^[39][40]
• Jerry Falwell, another American conservative Baptist minister, characterized the prophet Muhammad as being a 'terrorist'.^[41]
• Franklin Graham who described Islam as an 'evil and wicked religion' and suggested that those who believed Islam to be "wonderful" should "go and live under the Taliban somewhere".^[42]

There are also outspoken former Muslims who believe that Islam is the primary cause for what they see as the mistreatment of minority groups in Muslim countries and communities. Almost all of them now live in the West, many under assumed names because of a legitimate danger to themselves. Many have had death threats made against them by Islamic groups and individuals.

• Salman Rushdie author of The Satanic Verses.
• Ayaan Hirsi Ali, who has focused on the plight of Muslim women, saying that "they aspire to live by their faith as best they can, but their faith robs them of their rights."^[43]
• Nyamko Sabuni, who is the Minister of Integration and Gender Equality in Sweden and advocates banning the veil and instituting compulsory gynecological examinations for schoolgirls to guard against female genital mutilation, stating, "I will never accept that women and girls are oppressed in the name of religion" and declaring it not her intent to reform Islam but only to denounce "unacceptable" practices. She has received death threats, requiring 24-hour police protection, for her views.^[44]
• Ali Sina The founder of Faith Freedom International.
• Ibn Warraq a secularist author, intellectual, scholar and founder of the Institute for the Secularisation of Islamic Society and a senior research fellow at the Center for Inquiry^[45][46][47] specializing in Koranic criticism.^[48][49]
• Nonie Darwish, who founded the pro-Israel web site Arabs for Israel and stated that "Islam is more than a religion, it is a totalitarian state"^[50] She is also the author of Now They Call Me Infidel: Why I Renounced Jihad for America, Israel, and the War on Terror.

• Irshad Manji, a Canadian journalist and author of The Trouble with Islam.^[51]
• Wafa Sultan, who has pointed out that the prophet of Islam said: "I was ordered to fight the people until they believe in Allah and his Messenger." Sultan has called on Islamic teachers to review their writings and teachings and remove every call to fight people who do not believe as Muslims.^[52] Dr. Sultan is now in hiding, fearing for her life and the safety of her family after appearing on the al-Jazeera TV show.^[53]
• Ahmed H. al-Rahim, founder of American Islamic Congress, who says that the Mosques in America are teaching values of hate and not peace.^[54]

Some responses to criticism of Islam have come from non-Muslim scholars such as:

• William Montgomery Watt who in his book Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman addresses Muhammad’s alleged moral failures. He claims that “Of all the world's great men none has been so much maligned as Muhammad.” Watt argues on a basis of moral relativism that Muhammad should be judged by the standards of his own time and country rather than "by those of the most enlightened opinion in the West today."^[55]
• Karen Armstrong, tracing what she believes to be the West's long history of hostility toward Islam, finds in Muhammad’s teachings a theology of peace and tolerance. Armstrong holds that the "holy war" urged by the Qur'an alludes to each Muslim's duty to fight for a just, decent society.^[56]
• Edward Said, in his essay Islam Through Western Eyes, stated that the general basis of Orientalist thought forms a study structure in which Islam is placed in an inferior position as an object of study. He claims the existence of a very considerable bias in Orientalist writings as a consequence of the scholars' cultural make-up. He claims Islam has been looked at with a particular hostility and fear due to many obvious religious, psychological and political reasons, all deriving from a sense "that so far as the West is concerned, Islam represents not only a formidable competitor but also a late-coming challenge to Christianity."^[57]
• Cathy Young of Reason Magazine claimed that the growing trend of anti-Islamic and anti-Muslim sentiment stemmed from an atmosphere where such criticism is popular. While stating that the terms "Islamophobia" and "anti-Muslim bigotry" are often used in response to legitimate criticism of fundamentalist Islam and problems within Muslim culture, she claimed "the real thing does exist, and it frequently takes the cover of anti-jihadism."^[58]

The following Muslim Scholars have written responses to criticism of Islam:

• Yusuf Estes an American convert to Islam and Chairman of "the Muslim Foundation International".^[59]
• Dr. Zakir Naik founder and president of the Islamic Research Foundation (IRF)
• Yusuf al-Qaradawi an Egyptian Muslim scholar and preacher best known for his popular al Jazeera program, ash-Shariah wal-Hayat ("Shariah and Life"), and IslamOnline (a website that he helped to found in 1997), where he offers opinions and religious edicts ("fatwa") based on his interpretation of the Qur'an. He has also published some fifty books, including The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam and Islam: The Future Civilization.
• Michael Sells the John Henry Barrows Professor of Islamic History and Literature at the Divinity School of the University of Chicago.[12]
• Muqtedar Khan a Muslim intellectual, whose articles and columns are widely published. He is a proponent of social change regarding treatment of women in some Islamic societies, but identifies himself as both traditional as well as liberal.
• Muhammad Mohar Ali says that the Qur'an records the earliest criticisms (and responses), examples of which are Muhammad being called a madman (e.g. 15:6), a poet (21:5), a kahin soothsayer (69:42), and so on. He writes that nothing of importance has been added by later critics.^[60]

Islam makes many statements and assertions that critics have attempted to show to be untrue, namely.

Main article: Criticism of the Qur'an

See also: Historicity of Muhammad -- historical authenticity of the Qur'an

See also: Origin and development of the Qur'an

An extract of a page from the Sana'a manuscripts the oldest known copy of the Qur'an. This version contains differences from the traditional version.

Muslims believe the Qur'an to be the perfect word of Allah, and as such it cannot contain any errors or contradictions, and must be perfectly compatible with science. It is so perfect that readers must conclude it is of divine, rather than human, origin.

Critics argue that:

• the Qur'an does have scientific errors.^[61][62]
• the Qur'an contains numerous verses which contradict each other.^[63][64]
• the Qur'an gets cosmology predictably wrong.^[38]
• there is nothing miraculously new in the Qur'an^[38]
• the Qur'an is not original, but a rather shows the influence of Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Sabianism, and Samaritanism in its origins. S Zwemer concluded the Qur'an

• The oldest scripts of the Qur'an (the Sana'a manuscripts, found in Yemen in 1972) ^[66] contain minor differences from the traditional version.^[67] Critics believe that this implies that the Qur'an has changed over time.^[68]

• The traditional account of the history of Islam says there were two verses in the Qur'an (known as the Satanic Verses) that were allegedly added by Mohammad when he was tricked by Satan. These verses referred to "daughters of Allah". These verses were later removed from the Qur'an.^[69][55] Supposedly, Allah guarantees that any errors will eventually be corrected.

Main article: Hadith

Hadith are Muslim traditions relating to the Sunna (words and deeds) of Muhammad. They are drawn from the writings of scholars writing between 844 and 874 CE, more than 200 years after the death of Mohammed in 632 AD.^[70] In general, for Muslims the hadith are second only to the Qur'an in importance,^[71] although some scholars put more emphasis on the perpetual adherence of Muslim nation to the traditions to give them credibility, and not solely on hadith.^[72]. Most of our knowledge about the life of Muhammad comes from the hadith, many of which were biographies of Mohammed. Many Islamic practices (such as the Pillars of Islam) are drawn from the hadith.

However, there is criticism of the historical reliability of hadith. John Esposito notes that "Modern Western scholarship has seriously questioned the historicity and authenticity of the hadith", maintaining that "the bulk of traditions attributed to the Prophet Muhammad were actually written much later." He mentions Joseph Schacht as one scholar who argues this, claiming that Schacht "found no evidence of legal traditions before 722," from which Schacht concluded that "the Sunna of the Prophet is not the words and deeds of the Prophet, but apocryphal material" dating from later.^[73]

Other Western scholars, like Wilferd Madelung, are more confident in the reliability of Islamic traditions, rejecting the stance of some historians who show an "extreme distrust" for "Muslim literary sources for the early age of Islam". Madelung wrote in the preface of his book The Succession to Muhammad:

Within Islam, different schools and sects have different opinions on the proper selection and use of hadith. The four schools of Sunni Islam all consider hadith second only to the Qur'an, although they differ on how much freedom of interpretation should be allowed to legal scholars.^[75] Shi'i scholars disagree with Sunni scholars as to which hadith should be considered reliable. The Shi'as accept the Sunna of Ali and the Imams as authoritative in addition to the Sunna of Muhammad, and as a consequence they maintain their own, different, collections of hadith.^[76]

On the extreme end, there have been Muslims who deny the authority of the hadith completely or almost completely (manifestations of which have sometimes been termed the Quran-only movement). Early in Islamic history there was a school of thought that adhered to this view, but it receded in importance after coming under criticism by al-Shafi'i. Daniel Brown describes a modern anti-hadith movement that reached its peak in the 1950s and 1960s, but is now in decline.^[77] The Submitters movement today holds to a Quran-only view,^[78] although they are considered heretical by more traditionalist Muslims.^[79]

See also: Historiography of early Islam

The traditional view of Islam has also been criticised for the lack of supporting evidence consistent with that view, such as the lack of archaeological evidence, and discrepancies with non-Muslim literary sources.^[80] (see Hagarism)

Main article: Criticism of Muhammad

Muslims consider Muhammad to be the final prophet, the messenger of the final revelation that he called the Qur’an. Muslims believe that Muhammad is righteous, holy, no more than a messenger, a warner and seal of Prophets. However, some scholars such as Koelle and Ibn Warraq, as well as some other non-Muslims, see some of his actions as immoral.^[5][7] Islamic scholars, such as William Montgomery Watt disagree, especially when a comparison is made between Muhammad and Biblical prophets. Watt, for example, argues that Muhammad should be judged by the standards of his own time and country rather than "by those of the most enlightened opinion in the West today."

Main article: Criticism of the Qur'an

Muslims believe that the Qur'an is the literal word of God as recited to Muhammad through the Angel Gabriel. Criticism of the Qur'an generally consists of questioning traditional claims about the Qur'an's composition and content.

It is a central tenet of Islam that the Qur'an is perfect, so criticism of the Qur'an is considered criticism of Islam.

This is a list of critical arguments:

• Critics argue that the Quranic verse ^{[Qur'an 4:34]} allows Muslim men to beat their wives^[81][82]
• Critics claim that because violence is implicit in the Qur'anic text, Islam itself, not just Islamism, promotes terrorism.^{[83][84][85][86]}.
• The Quran is criticized for advocating the death penalty^[87][88] or other harsh punishments, for acts like homosexuality,^[89] adultery,^[90] and theft.^[91]
• There is much criticism of the Qur'an on its position on slavery, since it specifically allows the practice.^[92]
• Some critics argue that the Qur'an is incompatible with other religious scriptures, attacks and advocates hate against people of other religions.^{[8][93][94][95][96]}

Decision of a Fatwa committee on the case of a convert to Christianity: "Since he left Islam, he will be invited to express his regret. If he does not regret, he will be killed pertaining to rights and obligations of the Islamic law."

Main article: Apostasy in Islam

Bernard Lewis summarizes:

The four Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence, as well as Shi'a scholars, agree that a sane adult male apostate must be executed. A female apostate may be put to death, according to the majority view, or imprisoned until she repents, according to others.^[98]

The Qur'an threatens apostate with punishment in the next world only, the historian W. Heffening states, the traditions however contain the element of death penalty. Muslim scholar Shafi'i interprets verse ^{[Qur'an 2:217]} as adducing the main evidence for the death penalty in Qur'an.^[99] The historian Wael Hallaq states the later addition of death penalty was "reflects a later reality and does not stand in accord with the deeds of the Prophet." He further states that "nothing in the law governing apostate and apostasy derives from the letter of the holy text."^[100]

William Montgomery Watt, in an interview in response to a question about westerns view of the Islamic Law as being cruel, states that "In Islamic teaching, such penalties may have been suitable for the age in which Muhammad lived. However, as societies have since progressed and become more peaceful and ordered, they are not suitable any longer."^[101]

Some contemporary Islamic jurists from both the Sunni and Shi'a denominations together with Qur'an only Muslims have argued or issued fatwas that state that either the changing of religion is not punishable or is only punishable under restricted circumstances.^{[102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109]} For example, Grand Ayatollah Hossein-Ali Montazeri argues that no Qur'anic verse prescribes an earthly penalty for apostasy and adds that it is not improbable that the punishment was prescribed by Muhammad at early Islam due to political conspiracies against Islam and Muslims and not only because of changing the belief or expressing it. Montazeri defines different types of apostasy. He does not hold that a reversion of belief because of investigation and research is punishable by death but prescribes capital punishment for a desertion of Islam out of malice and enmity towards the Muslim.^[110]

Today, out of 57 mostly Islamic countries in OIC, five make apostasy from Islam a crime punishable by death: Afghanistan: Saudi Arabia: Iran: Sudan and Yemen. According the US State Department, there have been no reports any executions carried out by the government of Saudi Arabia for several years.^[111] On the other hand, in Pakistan, vigilante attacks against alleged apostates are common.^[112]

The recent case of Afghan Abdul Rahman has achieved particular notoriety. In early 2006 , Rahman was arrested and held by Afghan authorities on charges that he converted from Islam to Christianity, a capital offense in Afghanistan. Many Muslim clerics in the country pushed for a death sentence, but after international pressure (including a public statement by U.S. Secretary of State at the time Condoleezza Rice) he was released and secretly given asylum in Italy.^[113][114]

In 1993, an Egyptian professor named Nasr Abu Zayd was divorced from his wife by an Egyptian court run by Islamic radicals on the grounds that his controversial writings about the Qur'an demonstrated his apostasy. He subsequently fled to Europe with his wife.^[115] Another Egyptian professor, Farag Fuda, was killed in 1992 by masked men after criticizing Muslim fundamentalists and announcing plans to form a new movement for Egyptians of all religions.^[116]

Some widely held interpretations of Islam are inconsistent with Human Rights conventions that recognize the right to change religion.^[117][118]

In particular article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights ^[119] states:

To implement this, Article 18 (2) of the ICCPR states:

The right for Muslims to change their religion is not afforded by the Iranian Shari'ah law, which specifically forbids it ^{[120][118][117]}

Muslim countries such as Sudan, Iran, and Saudi Arabia, have the death penalty for apostasy from Islam.^[121].

These countries have criticized the Universal Declaration of Human Rights for its perceived failure to take into account the cultural and religious context of non-Western countries.

In 1990 the Organization of Islamic Conference published a separate Cairo Declaration of Human Rights compliant with Shari'ah.^[122]. Although granting many of the rights in the UN declaration, it does not grant Muslims the right to convert to other religions, and restricts freedom of speech to those expressions of it that are not in contravention of the Islamic law.

Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, the founder of Jamaat-e-Islami.^[123] write a book Human Rights in Islam^[124], in which he argues that respect for human rights has always been enshrined in Sharia law (indeed that the roots of these rights are to be found in Islamic doctrine)^[125] and criticizes Western notions that there is an inherent contradiction between the two.^[126]. Western scholars have, for the most part, rejected Maududi's analysis.^{[127][128] [129]}

Main article: Women and Islam#Liberal Islam, Islamic feminism, and other progressive criticism

Many have asserted that "women are not treated as equal members" of Muslim societies ^[10] and have criticized Islam for condoning this treatment.^[11]

Muslims have been accused of interpreting the Qu'ran and Islamic teachings to justify discrimination and violence against non-Muslims.

Non-Muslims are called non-believers Kafirs or Infidels in the Qu'ran^{[citation needed]}. The Jizya or head tax was levied on non-Muslims in Islamic kingdoms. Non-Muslims were also prevented from practicing their faith openly.^{[citation needed]}

Many places of worship, such as temples and churches, have been destroyed by Muslim armies.^{[citation needed]} Notable examples are the Somnath Temple in Gujarat destroyed by Mahmoud Ghauri. Christian places of worship have also been converted into mosques, with Hagia Sophia in Istanbul being a notable example.^{[citation needed]}

In Saudi Arabia it is a crime to openly display or practice any religion other than Islam.

The terms "Islamic apartheid" and "Muslim apartheid" have been used to highlight alleged discrimination by religion as well as by gender.^{[130][131][132][133]}

The gigantic Bamiyan Buddha statues were destroyed by the Taliban in 2001 on the pretext that they were no longer worshiped by anyone and hence not needed.

This short section requires expansion.

Islam has been criticised as being intolerant and violent towards its critics.

• Ibn Warraq has collected and published stories of the reported mistreatment of Muslim apostates at the hands of Islamic authorities.^[6]
• German professor Christoph Luxenberg feels compelled to work under a pseudonym to protect himself because of fears that a new book on the origins of the Qur'an may make him a target for violence.^[134]
• Hashem Aghajari, an Iranian university professor, was initially sentenced to death because of a speech that criticized some of the present Islamic practices in Iran being in contradiction with the original practices and ideology of Islam, and particularly for stating that Muslims were not "monkeys" and "should not blindly follow" the clerics. The sentence was later commuted to three years in jail, and he was released in 2004 after serving two years of that sentence.^{[135][136][137]}

• In recent times fatwas calling for execution have been issued against author Salman Rushdie and activist Taslima Nasreen.^[138]

• On November 2, 2004, Dutch Filmmaker Theo van Gogh was assassinated by Dutch born Mohammed Bouyeri for producing the 10 minute film Submission critical of the abusive treatment of women within Islam. The author of the screenplay, Ayaan Hirsi Ali entered into hiding immediately following the assassination.^[139]

• On September 30, 2005, the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten published editorial cartoons, many of which depicted the Islamic prophet Mohammed. The publication was intended to contribute to the debate regarding criticism of Islam and self-censorship - objectives which manifested themselves in the public outcry from Muslim communities within Denmark and the subsequent apology by the paper. However, the controversy deepened when further examples of the cartoons were reprinted in newspapers in more than fifty other countries. This led to protests across the Muslim world, some of which escalated into violence, including setting fire to the Norwegian and Danish Embassies in Syria, and the storming of European buildings and desecration of the Danish and German flags in Gaza City.^[140]
• On September 19, 2006 French writer and philosophy teacher Robert Redeker wrote an editorial for Le Figaro, a French conservative newspaper, in which he attacked Islam and Muhammad, writing: "Pitiless war leader, pillager, butcher of Jews and polygamous, this is how Mohammed is revealed by the Qur'an"; he received death threats and went into hiding.^[141]

Critics of Islam are concerned about the rise in fatwas from Islamic leaders. Some fatwas are simple declarations about lifestyle choices and others, such as Osama bin Laden's declaration of war against America, are a call to violence or assassination. Some critics of fatwas are shocked by a recent call to destroy ancient Egyptian statues and artifacts. [13]

The immigration of Muslims to European countries has increased greatly in recent decades, and frictions have developed between these new neighbors. Conservative Muslim social attitudes on modern issues have caused much controversy in Europe and elsewhere, and scholars argue about how much of these attitudes are a result of Islamic beliefs.^[142] The 24-rule was introduced in Denmark, whereby a person must be over 24 years old to marry a foreign born individual. This law came into place to prevent Muslim arranged marriages.

Some critics say that Islam is incompatible with secular society,^[12] and their criticism has been influenced by a stance against multiculturalism advocated by recent philosophers, closely linked to the heritage of New Philosophers. Fiery polemic on the subject by proponents like Pascal Bruckner,^[143] and Paul Cliteur has kindled international debate.^[144] They hold multiculturalism to be an invention of an enlightened elite who deny the benefits of democratic rights to the rest of humanity by chaining people to their roots. They claim this allows Islam free rein to propagate abuses such as the mistreatment of women and homosexuals, and in some countries slavery. They also claim multiculturalism allows freedom of religion^[145] to exceed the realms of personal religious experience^[146] and to organize towards mundane ambitions seeking moral and political influence that opposes European secular or Christian values. This tendency to focus criticism of Islam on politics and the non-European identity of its traditions triggered a new debate on Islamophobia.^[142]

• Cohen, Mark R. (1995). Under Crescent and Cross. Princeton University Press; Reissue edition. ISBN 978-0691010823. 
• Lockman, Zachary (2004). Contending Visions of the Middle East: The History and Politics of Orientalism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521629379. 
• Rippin, Andrew (2001). Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd, Routledge. ISBN 978-0415217811. 
• Westerlund, David (2003). "Ahmed Deedat's Theology of Religion: Apologetics through Polemics". Journal of Religion in Africa 33 (3). >

• The Truth About Muhammad: Founder of the World's Most Intolerant Religion by Robert Spencer
• The Politically Incorrect Guide to Islam (And the Crusades) by Robert Spencer
• Onward Muslim Soldiers by Robert Spencer
• The Legacy of Jihad by Andrew G. Bostom
• Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide by Bat Ye'or
• Decline of Eastern Christianity: From Jihad to Dhimmitude by Bat Ye'or
• The Al Qaeda Connection: International Terrorism, Organized Crime, And the Coming Apocalypse by Paul L. Williams
• An Autumn of War: What America Learned from September 11 and the War on Terrorism by Victor Davis Hanson
• Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam by Gilles Kepel
• The War for Muslim Minds by Gilles Kepel
• J. Tolan, Saracens; Islam in the Medieval European Imagination (2002)
• Esposito, John L. (1995). The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality?. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0-19-510298-3. 
• Halliday, Fred (2003). Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics of the Middle East. I.B. Tauris, New York. ISBN 1-86064-868-1. 
• Esposito, John L. (2003). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0-19-516886-0. 

• Geisler, Norman L. (2002). Answering Islam: The Crescent in Light of the Cross. Baker Books. ISBN 0-8010-6430-9. 
• Ibn Warraq, Why I Am Not a Muslim (1995)
• —, Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out
• The Institute for the Study of Civil Society report - The ‘West’, Islam and Islamism
• Zwemer Islam, a Challenge to Faith (New York, 1907)
• Shoja-e-din Shafa, Rebirth (1995) (Persian Title: تولدى ديگر)
• Shoja-e-din Shafa, After 1400 Years (2000) (Persian Title: پس از 1400 سال)
• Category:Books critical of Islam