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A fansub (short for fan-subtitled) is a version of a foreign film or foreign television program which has been translated by fans and subtitled into a language other than that of the original. The most common material to be fansubbed into English is Japanese anime,^{[citation needed]} but the phenomenon is much more common in non-English-speaking areas where a wide variety of foreign (especially American) films and TV shows are subtitled and distributed for free online by fans.

Because distribution of fan-subtitled content is a violation of copyright laws in most countries, the ethical implications of producing, distributing, or watching fansubs are topics of much controversy.

Contents 1 Evolution of the fansub 1.1 Early fansubs 1.2 Modern fansub techniques 1.3 Distribution and playback 2 Legal and ethical issues 3 Dynamics of fansubbing 4 Recent legal action 5 See also 6 References 7 External links

Fansubs originated during the explosion of anime production during the 1980s in Japan. Relatively few titles were licensed for distribution in foreign countries. This made it difficult for anime fans to obtain new titles. Some fans, generally those with some Japanese language experience, began producing amateur subtitled copies of new anime programs so that they could share them with their fellow fans who did not understand Japanese.

The first distribution media of fansubbed material was VHS tapes. Such copies were notoriously low quality, time consuming to make, expensive to produce,(Over US$4000 in 1986)^[1] and difficult to find. A limited number of copies were made and then mailed out or distributed at local anime clubs. Fans could purchase fansubs at a modest cost or could contact clubs who would record the material on their own blank video cassettes.

However, with the advent of widespread high-speed Internet access, desktop video editing, and DVD ripping, the original process has largely been abandoned in favor of digital fansubbing (digisubbing) and electronic distribution of the resulting digisubs. This has allowed fansubbing to transform from a slow and tedious task that generates a low quality preview of an attractive show to a cheap, easy, and quick way to create a high quality and high availability alternative to an only-slightly-better quality official DVD copy, although some groups release HD quality fansubs.

However, a majority of fansubs are encoded at distinctly less than DVD quality, often featuring fewer channels of sound and less picture quality since many stem from TV recordings. Even fansubs based on Japanese DVD rips have less quality. The primary reason is file size: 175 MB, 233 MB, and 350 MB are generally treated as the "standard" sizes for a fansub file because they divide evenly into 700 MB, the size of a typical CD-R. Since the introduction of the DVD, sizes like 172 MB and 344 MB are also used, allowing 13 or 26 episodes (one season) to fit on a DVD. However, since most digisubs now use a better MPEG-4 compression, in comparison to the MPEG-2 compression used by DVDs, the difference in quality is becoming less noticeable despite the smaller filesizes.

Digisubs are now of such quality and free accessibility that the incentive to upgrade to a legitimate copy once a title is domestically licensed may be severely diminished. However, recent research by the Yale Economic Review has shown that people who download movies are no less likely to buy movies than those who do not, calling this conclusion into serious question.^[2] Economic instabilities in both the US and Japan have made it hard to gauge the precise consequences of digisubs on the commercial industry, as well.^{[citation needed]}

Early or "traditional" fansubs were produced using analog video editing equipment. First, a copy of the original source material, called a raw was obtained. The most common raw source was a commercial laserdisc. However, a commercial VHS tape or even a homemade recording could be used as well, though that would entail a lower quality finished product. A translated script was then made to match the dialog of the raw video. The video script was then timed. Timing is the process of assigning a "start time" (Synch-Point) and "end time" for each line of subtitling; this determines how long a given subtitle would remain on the screen. Timing a script was usually done in conjunction with computer software designed specifically for that purpose. The person performing the timing would watch the source video and would assign the appearance, changing, and removal of the subtitle text using a computer. The two most popular programs used in this process were JACOsub (on the Commodore Amiga) and Substation Alpha (on MS Windows). Once the script was prepared and timed, the next step was to produce one or more masters. A master was a high quality copy of the finished fansub from which many distribution copies could be made. The fansubber would play back the raw video through a computer equipped with a genlock in order to generate the subtitles and then overlay them on the raw signal. The hardware of choice was an Amiga PC as most professional genlocks were extraordinarily expensive. The final output of this arrangement was then recorded. The master was most often recorded onto S-VHS tape in an attempt to maximize quality, though some fansubbers were forced to use inferior but less expensive VHS. Once completed, the master copy was then sent to a distributor.

Fansub distributors (who delivered videos to fans) were usually separate from fansubbers, who did translations and produced masters. Since most members of the fansub community did not want to profit from their activities, fansubs were usually not "sold". Typically, a fan who wanted copies of a given program would mail blank VHS tapes to a fansub distributor, along with a modest payment for shipping expenses. The distributor would then record copies onto the "customer's" blank cassettes, and ship them back. Alternatively, a fansub distributor might sell copied tapes outright, but at a low price which was intended to be exactly enough to cover the cost of blank cassettes and shipping.

This style of fansubbing was quite cost-intensive for the fansubber and the distributor. The raw usually was purchased at a high price; nearly all Anime Laserdiscs (or tapes) cost more than $50, and many cost more than $100. It would not be uncommon for a $50 Laserdisc to contain just 30 minutes of video. Obtaining quality raws for a series of moderate length could cost over $1000. As well, many fansubbing groups paid professional translators in order to generate the script. Then, expensive video equipment was required: Laserdisc player, PC, genlock, and recording deck for producing the master; subsequently two or more video decks were then needed for producing distribution copies. Professional grade video hardware such as players, recorders, and editing decks was extremely expensive; easily into the thousands of dollars.

The video quality of early fansubs was not good.^{[citation needed]} The high cost of equipment forced most fansubbing groups to use less expensive but inferior quality consumer grade electronics. Even when a high quality LD source and professional grade hardware could be used, the final fansub was at best a third-generation copy. In reality, most fansubs in circulation were fourth or fifth generation copies, and were not made on professional equipment. Thus, in practice quality was usually very poor, though the actual localization and translation were closer to a professional level than those found in modern fansubs.

Modern fansubs are produced almost entirely on computer. A raw is still required, but unlike the fansubbers who relied on laser discs, most raw sources comes directly from recordings off Japanese TV, which are widely available via Japanese peer-to-peer programs such as Winny or Share. While TV recordings are now the primary type of raw used today, rips of region 2 DVDs are also used. For older shows not available on DVD, some modern fansubbers use computers equipped with video capture hardware to get digital copies of older analog media (laserdisc or tape) to work with.

Once the video is in the computer it can be edited and subtitles applied with minimal or no loss of quality, compared to the playback-recording cycle required in traditional fansubbing. However, a majority of the encoding formats used generally cause some loss of quality versus the original broadcast or DVD. A relatively inexpensive PC can perform all of the manipulation necessary, without the need for expensive and complex devices such as editing decks and a genlock.

Translation is usually done solely by listening to the recording. Mostly, translators are not experienced with fansub technology and only provide a translation.^[3] While commercial releases will often have access to the scripts, fansubbers have to translate by ear. This can sometimes lead to mistakes or unclear spellings of names. The latter is most common with shows that use Western names. Because of ambiguities resulting from Japanese pronunciation and transcription of English names, names like Alice can sound or be spelled like "Arisu" - which can be misheard as any number of Alice alternatives. This can lead to different fansubbing groups using different spellings. A famous example is Winry Rockbell from Full Metal Alchemist, who was spelled as both Winry and Winly by different groups due to the equivalence of the alveolar approximant and alveolar lateral approximant in Japanese.

An alternative to using the raw Japanese file for audio translation is the use of video that has been subtitled in Chinese. China (both the People's Republic of China and the Taiwan) have their own fansub groups that also release to the Internet. Several fansubbers are known to translate into English the Chinese translations of the original Japanese, although this inherently reduces the accuracy of the translation because of the fact it has gone through two translations. A recent example of a show that was fansubbed entirely using Chinese subs is My-Otome; Doremi, one of the groups that worked on the show, used two native Chinese speakers for the project, although several translation checkers were on hand to verify against the original Japanese. In a similar way, English-subbed series can be retranslated into other languages.^[3]

After translation is complete, the subtitles are written and timed (SubStation Alpha is still popular, although Aegisub, Sabbu and JACOSub are becoming more popular)^[3], typeset, and then checked for errors (quality control, or simply QC). The subtitles are encoded using VirtualDub or a similar program.^[3]

There are several methods of subbing currently used. "Hard" subtitles, or hard subs, are encoded into the footage, and thus become hard to remove from the video without losing video quality (this can be done with a VirtualDub Filter). "Soft" subtitles, or soft subs, are subtitles applied at playback time from a subtitle datafile, either mixed directly into the video file, or in a separate file. With the correct media player or an auxiliary program softsubs are superimposed on the footage and appear indistinguishable from hardsubs. Hard subs have traditionally been more popular than softsubs, due to a lack of player support and worries over plagiarism, but recently (as of 2006) several major fansub groups have begun using softsubs. Since modern video media can contain multiple softsubs, some groups release fansubs with several translations into different languages, or differently styled subtitles to fit different preferences.

The internet allows for highly collaborative fansubbing, and each member of a fansub team may only complete one assigned task.^[3] Online fansubbing communities are able to release a fully subtitled episode (including increasingly elaborate karaoke^[3] with translation, kana & kanji for songs, additional remarks and translations of signs)^[4] in under 24 hours after an episode is debuted in Japan. Websites such as stormberry.tv allow the selectable soft subtitle tracks to be overlaid on web videos streamed from youtube.

In the case of hard subtitles a video editor (commonly VirtualDub) uses an AVISynth script to load the raw video file and the subtitle file (created by the translators) then the video software applies the subtitles on the video and captures video with the subtitles "burned" in.

The resulting fansub is a computer video file, with the companion sub file in the case of soft subs. It can be copied to CD or DVD media for physical distribution, but is most often distributed using online file-sharing protocols such as viral video, BitTorrent and by file-sharing bots on IRC.^[3] This allows modern anime fans to download the finished product at no or low cost to themselves or to distributors.

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, fansubs in electronic form were primarily distributed much like VHS tapes: via mail on CD-Rs. Many fans did not have high speed Internet and were unable to download large files. Many of the early electronic fansubs were made from regular VHS subs. In the case of Sailor Moon, the major fansub^[5] was based on VHS fansubs, and were distributed by the fansubber for a period of about seven years.^[6]

As of 2006, most fansubs are predominantly distributed through BitTorrent and IRC channels. Anime fansub news websites provide information about fansub releases. Because of a growing de-emphasis on CD-R or DVD-R distribution, file size standards have become less frequently followed.

An appropriate video and audio playback codec needs to be installed on the computer for proper playback. In addition, many of the video files use special multimedia container formats such OGM and Matroska. Special decoders need to be acquired for these formats as well. One main benefit of using Ogg media and Matroska multimedia containers is that it is possible to create a single file that has DVD-like features such as different audio tracks as well as different subtitle tracks and chapter support. At the same time, these multimedia containers can be demuxed back into their individual files, the individual files can be altered (for example, fixing a misspelling in the subtitles), and then remuxed back together.

Fansubbers have traditionally held themselves to a common code of ethics and do not commonly see themselves as pirates.^[7] Because fansubs are made for fans, by fans, and not usually for commercial purposes, many fans believe that fansubs should never be sold for a profit. They are either given away or sold for exactly the cost required to make them (usually, the cost of a blank cassette plus shipping expenses). Many fansubs contain subtitle text that reads "This is a free fansub: not for sale, rent, or auction" that pops up during eyecatches,^[8] in order to discourage bootleggers from violating this rule. Some sites, however, charge monthly fees for downloads, offering more bandwidth. Most fansubbers usually only work with material that has not been licensed for domestic release in their country of distribution. If a domestic company licenses a given title then fansub production and distribution of that title stops.^{[citation needed]} An exception, for some, is made when the licensor intends to heavily edit the content without releasing an uncut version, as is the case with 4Kids Entertainment. Fansubbers justify it as the free distribution of something that no one has claimed the right to sell in a particular region and/or country.^{[citation needed]} They proclaim this is the case for all unlicensed anime, but this overlooks the fact that copyright is respected internationally. When rights have yet to be purchased by a domestic company, they are still owned by the original creators, who have the ability to license them, and the right to control their properties worldwide.^[9] A related argument is the fact that fansubs are available for those who don't speak the native language of the intended program, or who don't live in the area it is broadcast to at least have access to it. This is especially true for off-mainstream, or even popular anime and manga that have not and are very unlikely to be licensed for distribution in North America. Without fansubbing groups, it is likely that Americans would otherwise never be given the option to view such material. Even examples like Yakitate!! Japan and Gintama are widely recognised among the fansub community, yet are still largely overlooked by North American companies, and the Japanese companies producing them show no signs of releasing official or professional subtitled versions for sale overseas.

Supporters of fansubbing point^{[citation needed]} to an alleged positive impact it has had on the anime industry through its function as publicity. There have been several shows that were at first overlooked for US distribution, only to be picked up later when fansubs helped create a buzz about the franchise. One example of this was Azumanga Daioh, now released by ADV Films. At A-Kon 15 in the summer of 2005, an ADV founder admitted that they thought Azumanga Daioh would not be initially popular in America. ADV subsequently decided to license this title after witnessing its popularity in the fansub community.^{[citation needed]} John Sirabella of Media Blasters recently engaged in a long discussion with fans on this topic, stating " "But let's be honest, how many people download and never buy? If I have to count the number of people who come by my table and say I already downloaded that one, I would not need to release anymore titles. The idea that somehow everyone is honest and only downloads to preview and later buy is a fallacy. The other problem with downloads is that you convince the border line people to go download and not buy because it so easily available. The people who only download will always download and never buy but it is that bigger audience who than believe "downloads are okay, everyone does it."...that is the problem and what we are trying to prevent. This is what happened to the music industry..."It is ok to download; everyone does it." "^[10] The role fansubs have played in popularizing anime titles received official recognition by at least two major distributors. In the promotional video announcing the American license of The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya, Kadokawa Pictures USA and Bandai Entertainment specifically thanked fansub watchers and asked them to purchase the official release. This is the first instance of a Japanese company admitting and accepting, but not necessarily supporting the well-intended piracy among fans.^[11]

Detractors of fansubbing counter by pointing to an alleged "dark side" of fansubbing. While many fansubbing groups stop distributing a show once it is licensed in North America, some continue long afterwards.^[12] However, this goes against the basic principles of ethical fansubbing. If a show is very far along when it is licensed (Bleach, for example, was in the 70s in episode numbers when it was licensed and Naruto had over 150), then some fansubbers will continue to release later episodes. Again, this may negatively affect the domestic licensor. Companies are working to undermine these dubious fan efforts, as with TV airings, a company can successfully dub over 100 episodes in as little as a two year period. For example, Funimation is working to release their uncut, unedited episodes of One Piece in multiple formats,^[13] releasing earlier season sections alongside boxsets more recent episodes in attempt to meet fan demand. VIZ's boxset format releases for Naruto and Prince of Tennis also attempt to deliver larger chunks of a series to fans in a quick and efficient manner. Longer productions like Naruto and Inuyasha are also known to be distributed by fansubbers even after a license is announced. Even after the official licensing of Naruto that came around the release of episode 124, fansubbing groups still distributed the show. Cartoon Network is now airing episodes(up to episode 117 currently) while fansub groups release up to episode 245 and beyond. While it is still true that native language dubs of shows are usually more popular, especially for anime geared at younger audiences like Naruto, an estimated 350,000 people download the current Japanese episode every week online. Naruto and Inuyasha were released on uncut subtitled DVDs, though the fansubs continued mostly due to the large difference between the number of episodes released officially and the number of episodes fansubbed. The distribution of Inu Yasha fansubs remains dubious however, due to the series completion in the domestic market, the entire series to be completely released on domestic DVD by late 2007.

Shows licensed by 4Kids, for example, are considered by some^{[citation needed]} to be "not truly licensed," due to the company's refusal to release unedited versions of their properties. Fansubbers have been the source of subtitled versions of several 4Kids shows, including Tokyo Mew Mew, One Piece, and Yu-Gi-Oh!. This overlooks that 4Kids attempted an uncut bilingual release of Shaman King and Yu-Gi-Oh in the mid 2000s, releasing a handful of volumes of each title in the format, as discussed by Alfred Kahn in an interview with ANN. Kahn stated that "The market for them just isn't as large as the one for the cut version", pointing out that their sales might not have met 4Kid's needs or expectations to continue them.^[14]

Past market reactions have shown that time might be better spent petitioning 4Kids for a bilingual release, and supporting the uncut release of former 4Kids licenses like One Piece, to show them there is a market for such titles. An older example is Sailor Moon, which was initially licensed by DiC. After fan demand showed there was a market for the title, uncut, unedited versions of the show, and Pioneer successfully release the Sailor Moon Movies in a subtitled vhs format in 1999, followed by dubbed versions and bilingual DVDs. This was quickly followed by the release of Sailor Moon S and Sailor Moon SuperS, which both received complete unedited releases on VHS and DVD from Geneon. In 2003, the commercial subtitles of the first two seasons appeared, released by ADV Films under license by DIC, completing the uncut release that many fans never believed would be possible. Later, ADV's license of the original Sailor Moon had expired and was not renewed despite honorable sales figures.^[15] However, this is less due to lack of interest, and moreso due to issues with Japanese rights holders as ADV discussed when announcing their boxsets going out of print.

Despite this, this is an example that sometimes, companies do make owning the complete series of a given show impossible. Shows like Sailor Moon and Fist of the North Star (also known as Hokuto no Ken) have only been partially released in the United States. As mentioned above, 'Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon Sailor Stars', the final series in Sailor Moon, has never been released in the United States} and Fist of the North Star saw an initial short release of the long series, stopping production at episode 36, as Manga Entertainment had only licensed this particular season of the anime. Other series that have partial releases include Air Master, Slam-Dunk and Bt'x. These marketing concerns for distribution companies create a gray operating zone for fansubbers. While on the one hand it is true that products like Fist of the North Star are released and licensed in America, only part of the series is available. A fan willing to buy the whole series would find it impossible. However, the lack of support of these products, which fansubs can play a part in, is often a factor in the decision to not continue releasing a series. The costs of licensing more of the series might not be possible without a successful release of the initial offering.

Critics of fansubs assert that digital distribution hurts the US anime industry. However, some argue it has increased anime's fanbase and allowed copyright holders to "make a tidy sum from fans prepared to 'spend thousands of dollars on one show'" both in Japan and America.^[16] As evidenced by Sirabella's comments, this isn't always the case. Another problem is the use of putting downloaded fansubs onto bootleg DVDs. Many Hong Kong Bootleggers have begun slapping domestically created fansubs, including don't sell warnings, onto their anime releases, further contributing to the piracy aspect of fansubs. The availability of internet fansubs has led to greater piracy than the limitations of VHS fansubs.^{[citation needed]}

Although executives of domestic anime distributors have been vocal about their objection to fansubs, most do not want to gain an image as being hostile to their fans. Of special note, many in the anime industry started as VHS fansubbers themselves, although fansubbing as they knew it then has become profoundly different from fansubbing as it is known today. This is due to the shift from traditional fansubbing using VHS tape to modern digisubs that are circulated on the internet.

During the early days of the Internet, it was difficult for fansubbing groups to get the attention of their target audience.^{[citation needed]} Even during the early to mid 1990s, groups still had to charge a nominal fee (usually $5 to $10 at most) for a VHS and shipping charges to get the anime to its destination. Many people in the general public were not willing to trust relatively unknown internet businesses, especially during the primitive days of internet security. Most of the American and UK anime distribution companies were formed during the early 1990s, and had little competition from such amateur groups. Some companies even formed out of fansubbing circles. However, as the internet grew in availability and speed, fansub groups were able to host and distribute fansubs online easily. Indeed, it became too easy, as many fans ignore official releases altogether, and some websites started charging for easier downloading rates. The development of new software and its newfound availability made it very simple to copy, subtitle, distribute, and play back fansubs, cutting into what DVDs offer, and their sales.

Many anime shows make their debut outside of Japan's shores in electronic format, and it is rare that a popular anime will go without fansubs.^{[original research?]} Recently, this has also applied to the tokusatsu fandom due to the fact fansubs are actually being done for Super Sentai, Kamen Rider, Ultraman, and various Daikaiju Movies which were badly dubbed over the decades. In addition, J-Horror and J-Drama, as well as other Asian Shows have been fansubbed as many people are becoming more and more curious about Asian Cinema and breaking away from the Kung Fu, Samurai, Giant Monsters films that so many people were familiar with prior to fansubbing.

This article or section appears to contradict itself. Please help fix this problem.

There is a belief among some fans that an "unspoken agreement" exists between the fansubbers and Japanese copyright holders that fansubs help promote a product.^{[citation needed]} This belief was challenged when in December of 2004 Media Factory, a Japanese copyright holder, directly requested that their works be removed from download sites, and since then numerous other companies such as Nippon TV have followed suit in the wake of the appearance of fansubs on YouTube.

On December 7, 2004, a Tokyo law firm representing Media Factory Inc., a Japanese animation company, sent letters and e-mails to the anime BitTorrent directory AnimeSuki and fansub groups Lunar Anime and Wannabe Fansubs requesting that they halt the fansubbing and hosting of all current and future fansubbing productions. ^[17] AnimeSuki and Lunar Anime complied, and shortly after, other fansub groups such as Solar and Shining Fansubs followed suit. Despite the request, Wannabe Fansubs and a handful of other fansubbing groups, continued to produce fansubs of MFI anime series.^[18] To date, this has been one of the few legal actions taken by a Japanese anime company against fansubbing.

After MFI's request was made public, only Genshiken, whose fansubs had been completed before the notifications, and Kimi ga Nozomu Eien were licensed in the US. MFI's other major projects, including Pugyuru and Akane Maniax, were not picked up by American distributors. The lack of buzz that surrounded these titles has been linked by fansub supporters^{[citation needed]} to MFI's suppression of fan distribution. They argue that by cutting off this means of "free advertisement," MFI has alienated fans who would normally buy their products after they were licensed and kept the shows from being as widely exposed as they might otherwise be.^{[citation needed]} The end result, say fansub supporters^{[citation needed]}, is a reduced interest from American anime companies and a loss of revenue for the studio. However, in August, 2006, School Rumble was finally licensed by Funimation thanks to popularity of the series garnered from its manga release by Del Rey. It took the series over 2 years to be licensed. Since MFI's legal action against fansubbers, their number of licenses secured is below the industry average.^{[citation needed]}

MFI's actions are currently used as an example in the fansub debate as a reason why other Japanese companies should not pursue similar injunctions. However, their titles are still being licensed, such as, and building on School Rumble's example, many of their manga such as Emma and Aria have been released by CMX and Tokyopop to build. Despite fansubbers accusations that they've become less successful, titles such as Area 88, Gankutsuou, Kurau Phantom Memory, Noein, Shura no Toki, UFO Ultramaiden Valkyrie, and more being released. This is due to close ties between Media Factory and their domestic licensors, and asking fansubbers to avoid their titles is simply them showing support for the work of their domestic partners.^{[citation needed]}

Titles are prelicensed, such as Ghost in the Shell Stand Alone Complex, or Street Fighter Generations, funded by Manga Entertainment, ADV Film's production of Chance Pop Session, negating the need for fansubs, company funds productions directly give quick delivery to US stores. However, some fansubbing such titles still occurs.

Fansub opposers claim^{[citation needed]} that Japanese licensors have reportedly grown discontent with fansubbers because the ease of access with which their works are obtained has begun to affect a foreign licensor's willingness to license a series, as evidenced by the Western market's sharp drop in new acquisitions in 2005. They also suggest^{[citation needed]} that anime fans in Japan have reportedly begun to turn to English fansubs which often appear days after a show's release, affecting sales in their home market. Indeed, Japanese companies have banded together to form JASRAC, a copyright holders rights company, which has frequently taken YouTube to task for providing content which domestic Japanese viewers often use, which includes fansubs, as seen on their official site. ^[19] A growing anti-fansub stance has been taken by US distributors, as seen in Geneon and ADV's comments at the State of the Industry Panel at Anime Boston, ^[20] as well as recent comments by Matt Greenfield of ADV films at Anime Central:

"Answering a fan question on how ADV perceives the threat and challenge presented by fansubbers, Matt answered that while fan subtitling is hurting the industry both in the US and in Japan, “the industry has to learn and adapt to new technology, and has to find ways to work around it.”^[21]

In Singapore, anime distributor Odex has been actively tracking down and sending legal threats against Internet users in Singapore since 2007. These Internet users have allegedly downloaded fansubbed anime via the BitTorrent network. Court orders on ISPs to reveal subscribers' personal information have been ruled in Odex's favour, leading to several downloaders receiving letters of legal threat from Odex and subsequently pursuing out-of-court settlements for at least S$3,000 (US$2,000) per person, the youngest person being only 9 years old^[22][23]. These actions were considered controversial by the local anime community and have attracted criticisms towards the company, as they are seen by fans as heavy-handed.^[24]

• Fandub
• Scanlation
• Fan translation
• Culture note

• Fansubber wiki including several guides and a 'claims list' for up and coming and older series
• Hatcher, Jordan S., "Of Otaku and Fansubs: A Critical Look at Anime Online in Light of Current Issues in Copyright Law". Script-ed, Vol. 2, No. 4, 2005
• Fansubs: Audiovisual Translation in an Amateur Environment
• Progress against the law - Anime and fandom, with the key to the globalization of culture
• Leonard, Sean, "Celebrating Two Decades of Unlawful Progress: Fan Distribution, Proselytization Commons, and the Explosive Growth of Japanese Animation" . UCLA Entertainment Law Review, Spring 2005