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A hookah (Hindi: हुक्का, Urdu: حقہ hukka) or shisha (Arabic: شيشة or أركيلة), is a single or multi-stemmed (often glass-based) water pipe device for smoking; originating in India,^[1][2][3] it has gained popularity, especially in the Arab World. A hookah operates by water filtration and indirect heat. It can be used for smoking many substances, such as herbal fruits and tobacco.

Depending on locality, hookahs may be referred to by many other names (often of Arab, Indian, Turkish, Uzbek, or Persian origin). Arghile or Narghile is the name most commonly used in Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Jordan, Turkey, Albania, Kosova, Greece, Palestine, Bulgaria and Romania, though the initial "n" is often dropped in Arabic. "Narghile" is from the Persian word "nārgil" or "coconut", from Sanskrit nārikela (नारिकेल)--as the original hookahs were made out of coconut shells.^[4] Shisha (شيشة) is from the Persian word shishe (شیشه, literally translated as glass and not bottle), and is primarily used for water pipes in Egypt and the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf (such as Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, UAE, and Saudi Arabia) as well as Morocco, Tunisia, Somalia and Yemen. In Iran it is called ghalyun (غلیون), ghālyun (قالیون), or ghalyān (قلیان) and in India and Pakistan it is referred to as huqqa (हुक्का /حقہ). The more colloquial terms "hubble-bubble" and "hubbly-bubbly" may be used in the region surrounding the red sea. However, among the younger generations of Jordan and Egypt these terms are also slang for adding marijuana to the tobacco.

The archaic form of this latter Indian name hookah is most commonly used in English for historical reasons, as it was in India that large numbers of English-speakers first sampled the effects of the water pipe. William Hickey wrote in his Memoirs that shortly after his arrival in Kolkata, India in 1775:

“

The most highly-dressed and splendid hookah was prepared for me. I tried it, but did not like it. As after several trials I still found it disagreeable, I with much gravity requested to know whether it was indispensably necessary that I should become a smoker, which was answered with equal gravity, 'Undoubtedly it is, for you might as well be out of the world as out of the fashion. Here everybody uses a hookah, and it is impossible to get on without'.....[I] have frequently heard men declare they would much rather be deprived of their dinner than their hookah.[5]

”

Contents 1 Culture 1.1 Middle East 1.1.1 Arab world 1.1.2 Iran 1.1.3 Afghanistan 1.1.4 Turkey 1.1.5 Israel 1.2 Other Asian countries 1.2.1 India 1.2.2 Pakistan 1.2.3 Malaysia 1.2.4 Philippines 1.3 South Africa 1.4 Europe 1.4.1 United Kingdom 1.5 United States and Canada 1.6 Mexico 2 Structure and operation 2.1 Components 2.1.1 The bowl 2.1.2 Hose 2.1.3 Body, Gasket, Valve 2.1.4 Water jar 2.1.5 The plate 2.1.6 Grommets 2.2 Operation 3 Tobacco 3.1 Tobamel 3.2 Ma'sal 3.3 Tumbâk 3.4 Jurâk 4 Flavours 5 Merchandising 6 Health benefits and risks 7 References 8 External links

In the Arab world, social smoking is done with a single or double hose. When the smoker is finished, either the hose is placed back on the table signifying that it is free, or it is handed from one user to the next, folded back on itself so that the mouthpiece does not point at the person receiving it. (Stories tell Nasser al-Din Shah Qajar thought of it as an insult if the mouthpiece pointed at the person, but there are no official facts.) Another tradition is that the receiver taps or slaps the giver on the back of the hand while taking it as a sign of respect or friendship.

In cafés and restaurants, however, it is rare for each smoker not to order an individual hookah, as the price is generally low, ranging from $2 to $10.

Most cafés (called maqha— Arabic: مقهى, "coffeeshop") in the Middle East have hookahs available. Cafés are very widespread, and are amongst the main social gathering places in the Arab world (similar to the status pubs have in the UK).

In Iran, the hookah is known as a ghalyun (Persian: قليان, قالیون, غلیون) (also spelt ghalyan, ghalyaan or ghelyoon). It is similar in many ways to the Arabic hookah but has its own unique attributes. An example is the top part of the ghalyoun called 'sar' (Persian: سر=head), where the tobacco is placed, is bigger than the ones seen in Turkey. Also the major part of the hose is flexible and covered with soft silk or cloth while the Turkish make the wooden part as big as the flexible part.

There are mouthpieces called 'Amjid' (امجید) that each person has his own personal one, usually made of wood or metal and decorated with valuable or other stones. Amjids are only used for their fancy look. However, all the Hookah Bars have plastic mouth-pieces.

Use of water pipes in Iran can be traced back to the Qajar period. In those days the hoses were made of sugar cane. Persians had a special tobacco called Khansar (خانسار, presumably name of the origin city). The charcoals would be put on the Khansar without foil. Khansar has less smoke than the normal tobacco.

The hookah was, until recently, served to all ages; Iranian officials have since passed a law forbidding its use by those under 14.^{[citation needed]}

In Afganistan, hookah has been popular, especially in Kabul, for some time. In Afghanistan, it is better known as "chillam".

In Turkey, hookah is smoked on a social basis, usually in one's home with guests or in a cafe with friends. Most cities have hookah cafes where hookah is offered with a non-alcoholic drink (mainly tea). This is mostly for health reasons rather than cultural reasons. Often people will smoke hookah after dinner as a replacement for cigarettes. In bigger cities such as Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, and Adana, restaurants may have dinner & hookah specials which include meal, beverage (alcoholic/non-alcoholic), Turkish coffee, and hookah.

Once the centre of Istanbul’s social and political life, the hookah is considered one of life’s great pleasures by the locals today. In certain parts of the country, people use hookah cafes to watch popular TV shows, national sports games, etc. and smoke hookah to socialize.

In Israel, the hookah is prevalent among Middle Eastern Jewish immigrants from Iran, Iraq, Turkey and Yemen (collectively known as Mizrahi Jews). Hookah use is also common in the Arab home where families will commonly smoke after a large meal or at a family gathering. Many Jewish families have also adopted this custom, although individual usage patterns vary according to culture heritage and custom. Hookahs are becoming increasingly popular within Israel particularly among tourists. Shops selling paraphernalia can be found on most high streets and markets. Most nightclubs also have hookahs. In 2005, due to an increase in use among youth, a campaign has been launched by The Israel Cancer Association warning against the hazards of hookah smoking, and the IDF has forbidden the use of hookahs by soldiers within its bases.

In the Indian subcontinent the hookah is becoming better known, and cafés and restaurants that offer it as a consumable are popular. The use of hookahs from ancient times in India was not only a custom, but a matter of prestige. Rich and landed classes would smoke hookahs. Tobacco is smoked in hookahs in many villages as per traditional customs. Smoking molasses in a hookah is now becoming popular amongst the youth in India. It is a growing trend amongst youngsters and adolescents. There are several chain clubs, bars and coffee shops (such as Mocha) in India offering a variety of hookahs.

The new trends emerging are that of non-tobacco hookahs with herbal flavours. Several modern restaurants are famous for this.

In Pakistan, hookahs have become very popular in the cosmopolitan cities. Many clubs and cafes are offering them and it has become quite popular amongst the youth and students in Pakistan. This form of smoking has become very popular for social gatherings, functions, and events. There are a large number of cafes and restaurants offering a variety of hookahs.

Malaysia too has seen an increase in hookah use and cafes offering hookah more commonly known as shisha pipes.^[6]

In the Philippines, the popularity is vastly growing, in the capital's most cosmopolitan city, Makati; various high-end bars and clubs offer hookahs to patrons.

Although hookah use has been common for hundreds of years and enjoyed by people of all ages, it has just begun to become a youth-oriented pastime in Asia in recent times. Hookahs are most popular with college students and teenagers, who may be underage and thus unable to purchase cigarettes.^[7]

In South Africa, hookah, colloquially known as a hubbly bubbly, is popular amongst the Cape Malay, Indian population, where it is smoked as a social pastime.^[8] However, hookah is seeing increasing popularity with white South Africans, especially the youth. Hookah bars are relatively uncommon, and smoking is normally done at home or in public spaces such as beaches and picnic sites.

In South Africa, the terminology of the various hookah components also differ from other countries. The clay "head/bowl" is known as a "clay pot". The hoses are called "pipes" and the air release valve is known, strangely, as a "clutch".

This section is written like a personal reflection or essay and may require cleanup. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style.(December 2007)

In Spain, the use of the hookah has recently increased in popularity. They are usually readily available at tea-oriented coffeehouses, called teterías in Spanish, which are often run by Arab immigrants or have some other sort of affinity with the east. Hookahs are usually sold at prices between €10 and €70, and hookah tobacco and charcoal is easily found in those same coffee houses, or at stores run by eastern immigrants. Immigrants and native Spanish alike enjoy this custom, and it is usually seen as a lighter way of smoking than cigarettes. Buying one's own tobacco and hookah is usually noticeably less expensive than ordering hookahs at a coffee house.

Hookahs are also becoming increasingly popular in Moscow and other Russian cities. Many bars employ a "hookah man" or "niam" which is commonly pronounced "ni-eem" (Rus. кальянщик tr. kal'yanshchik), often of middle-eastern appearance and wearing an approximation of Arab or Turkish costume, to bring the pipes to customers' tables and wrappings may be provided to each person at the table for hygiene reasons.

Hookahs are popular as well in Kyiv and other Ukrainian cities. All the youth hookah fashion looks the same way it looks in Russia.

Hookaah has been recently very popular in Indian Youth and places like Mocks and Sigaaras have made it very popular with Metropolitan cities like Mumbai.

Hookah smoking has also risen in popularity in Germany, particularly in Berlin and Cologne, where many hookah bars exist due in part to a relatively large Turkish population. Hookahs are also very easy to acquire. During the 2006 World Cup, many booths in the area outside of the Zoologischer Garten Bahnhof specialized in selling the water-pipes and flavored tobacco. In addition, many people create homemade hookahs due to the relative ease of construction and the high cost of a quality pipe. Hooka (locally called Shisha) bars are even commonly found in towns with just 100,000 inhabitants.

In Italy, hookah bars are still not so common, but their number is increasing, as hookah (usually known only as narghilè) smoking is currently gaining favor and seen as less dangerous and irritating for other nearby then cigarettes (yet, it is covered by the no smoke in public locals law if not for dedicated places or rooms). As a matter of note the Italian government banned the selling of the usual hookah wet and fruits flavoured tobacco as it does not pass under the statal monopoly on tobaccos (Monopolio di Stato) and, more important to health, is not regulated by precise rules before selling, unlike the normal, dry tobacco, and being wet have actually more possibility of being of low quality, partially degraded or containing colonies of bacterias which could not be completely killed by ember's fire while smoking. It is legal in Switzerland.

In Sweden, hookah smoking is on the rise. Cheap hookahs and hookah-related products, like tobacco and charcoal, are now available in the many kiosk-like businesses run by immigrants, mostly of middle-eastern origin, found in the larger cities. Hookahs are mostly used by teenagers and immigrants, but the use is slowly becoming more widespread. Hookah bars and similar establishments are still very rare though, in part due to anti-smoking laws which forbids smoking in restaurants and in public buildings.

In the Czech Republic, hookah is relatively common in many tearooms (usually cost between 100 and 150 CZK). Hookahs are usually sold in specialized orient-shops and tearooms at prices mostly between 500 and 2500 CZK. Local names for hookah are "šíša", "vodnice", "voďár", "vodní dýmka", etc.

Hookah ('vesipiip' in Estonian, 'vizipipa' in Hungarian) has also gained major popularity in Estonia and Hungary amongst teenagers, where it has caused controversy amongst the troubled parents. Still, it is difficult to find any party or youth gathering without a hookah.

In England, as of 2007, Hookah cafes (sometimes known locally as "Shisha Bars") exist in most major cities. London's Edgware Road area is noted for a high distribution of shops which serve hookah, but there is at least one hookah place to be found in most cities in the south, including Canterbury, Portsmouth, Bristol, Salisbury, Exeter, and Plymouth. Until July of 2007, hookahs could be smoked inside any public place. But after smoking was banned inside public places by the government, hookahs are only allowed to be smoked outside. There are, however, a few exceptions to this. If the building has three areas of ventilation, such as two walls with windows and a roof with a skylight that can be opened, then it can be smoked inside. Because England has a somewhat rainy and cool climate, this can present a challenge to outdoor hookah smoking sessions.

Indian restaurants but are most commonly found in Lebanese restaurants and Egyptian-run "hubbly-bubbly" bars. Concentrations of these hookah establishments are often found in close proximity to University campuses, as on Rusholme's Curry Mile in Manchester or in Oxford, and they cater to a mixture of British and Middle-Eastern clientel amongst students. A ban on public smoking was enacted in Scotland in 2006, and a similar ban has taken effect in England on July 1st 2007. Hookah bars have since been closed, as there is a complete ban of smoking in enclosed public areas; however, some businesses have remained open, functioning as normal cafés....

Main article: Hookah lounge

Recently many cities, states and countries have implemented smoking bans. In most jurisdictions, Hookah business can be exempted from the policies through special permits. Some permits however, have requirements such as the business earning a certain minimum percentage of their revenue from alcohol or tobacco.

In some cases hookah bars have been forced to close or consider alternatives, such as offering non-tobacco based maʿasel. In many cities though, hookah lounges have been growing in popularity - particularly near college campuses or cities with large Middle-Eastern communities.

In Mexico hookah bars have gained popularity in recent years, becoming a popular trend among young people. Some places are simply hookah cafes, while others are night-clubs offering hookah along with alcoholic beverages. They are often located at fashion zones like La Condesa or Santa Fe, two of the richest neighborhoods in Mexico City. The increasing popularity of the hookah is also due to the Middle Eastern immigrant families that have been settled in Mexico for some time now. The smoking of the hookah has also become a social pass time for week end afternoons. Although there is an increasing demand for hookah there are still few places that offer this pleasure. Unlike in Middle Eastern countries it is not habitual to smoke a hookah while, or immediately after a dinner. The smoking of hookah is done later usually in the late afternoon, and very commonly use alcoholic beverages (such as vodka or tequila) as filters instead of the traditional usage of water.

Excluding grommets, a hookah is usually made of five components, four of which are essential for its operation

Also known as the head of the hookah, the bowl is a container, usually made out of clay or marble, that holds the tobacco and coal during the smoking session. It is covered in a small piece of tin foil and holes are made before the coal is placed on top.

The hose is a slender tube that allows the smoke to be drawn. The end is typically fitted with a metal or wooden mouthpiece.

The body of the hookah is a hollow tube with a gasket at its bottom. The gasket itself has at least one opening for the hose. The gasket seals the connection of the body of the hookah with the water jar. The gasket may have one more opening with a valve in it for clearing the smoke from the water jar not via the hose. In some cases the gasket may contain openings for more than one hose.

Placed at the bottom of the hookah, the water jar is a container which the smoke from the tobacco passes through before it reaches the hose. By passing through water, the smoke gains moisture. This makes inhaling the smoke of the hookah easier than a cigarette's. Also the water jar allegedly functions as a filter for the smoke. The level of the water has to be higher than the lowest point of the body's tube in order for the smoke to pass through it. Liquids other than water may be added, such as a strong mixture of alcohol,spirit and/or fruit juice.

The plate is usually just below the bowl and is used for "dead" coals from previous smoking sessions. It is not vital for the operation of the hookah.

Grommets in a hookah are usually placed between the bowl and the body, the body's gasket and the water jar and between the body and the hose. The reason for the usage of grommets although not essential (the usage of paper or tape has become common) will help to seal the joints between the parts, therefore decreasing the amount of air coming in and maximizing the smoke breathed in.

The jar at the bottom of the hookah is filled with water sufficient to submerge a few centimeters of the body tube, which is sealed tightly to it. Tobacco is placed inside the bowl at the top of the hookah and a burning charcoal is placed on top of the tobacco. Some cultures cover the bowl with perforated tin foil to separate the coal and the tobacco, which minimizes inhalation of coal ash with the smoke.

When one inhales via the hose, air is pulled through the coal and into the bowl. The air, hot from the charcoal, roasts, not burns, the tobacco, producing smoke. This smoke passes down through the body tube, which extends into the water in the jar. It bubbles up through the water and fills the top part of the jar, to which the hose is attached. When a smoker inhales from the hose, smoke passes into the lungs, and the change in pressure in the jar pulls more air through the charcoal, continuing the process.

The hookah's components must be sealed tightly with grommets, or air which does not flow through the coal will dilute the smoke.

Tobamel A sweet substance smoked in a hookah pipe, usually containing tobacco. Tobamel is legal in Canada and the United States.

Ma'sal (Arabic is read right to left), معسل, (as there are many ways of transliterating Arabic, the transliterated spelling of the word may vary), Arabic for, literally, honeyed, and is the name the "shisha tobacco" is labeled as by the Arabic producers like Egyptian based Nakhla Tobacco.

Tumbâk is word of Turkish origin and refers simply to tobacco, not necessarily flavored or sweetened. The Persian word tumbeki and the Hindi/Urdu word Tumbako are similar.

Jurâk, mainly of Indian origin, might be considered as an intermediate substance between traditional sweetened tobaccos and the fruity hookah of modern times. The term applies both to a tobacco mixture that includes fruits or aromatic oils as well as tobacco that is just sweetened.

Molasses tobacco is sold in a variety of flavours. Some of the flavours in which it is available are derived from the addition of artificial flavourings; other manufacturers shun these. A few of the flavours are based upon the scent of flowers. Flavours include vanilla, coconut, rose, honey, strawberry, watermelon, mint, cherry, orange, apple, apricot, chocolate, coffee, grape, peach, cola, gum, bubblegum, vodka. fruitopia, etc. The Double-Apple (Persian:دوسیب,Do-Sib) is also a very popular flavour in the middle-east by the every day hookah-smokers because of the strength. But most two-apple tobacco seen in the U.S. stores are just apple flavour and aren't as strong. Nakhla produces the most popular double apple in the industry.

Some notable brands of flavored tobacco from include: Al Waha, Al Amir, Al Fakher, Habibi, Hookafina, Fumari, Fusion, Starbuzz, Tangiers, Layalina, Abajûra, El-bâshâ , El-'Esfahâny, En-nakhla, Ibyâry, Shîh 'el-beled, Zeglûl. All of these are Egyptian except for Shîh 'el-beled which is Tunisian, Tangiers which is produced in the United States, Fusion which is Jordanian, and Serbetli which is as well as Sima Sultan Turkish.

This is in addition to Bahraini molasses such as Bahraini Apple(done by local firms, and adopted by huge international hookah molasses firms such as Al Nakhla as well), and Bahraini Zeglul, and UAE Based Al Fakher molasses, which is often softer in taste than the Egyptian molasses. Today there are also numerous varieties produced in the West with more coming to market each year.

Besides being sold in little packets as is rolling tobacco, hookah is also sold in cardboard boxes and plastic jars. Packaging is generally illustrated with bright floral motifs, fruit, lush gardens and romantic images of sultans or pashas.

The relative proportions of tobacco, treacle, fruits and spices, on average, 30%, 50% and 20% respectively^{[citation needed]}. The substance is generally valid for two years; boxes usually indicate the production date. Health warnings about lung cancer risks and cardiovascular disease appear on these products similar to other tobacco products elsewhere in the world.

Some manufacturers like Soex produce tobacco-free flavored herbal blends and market these as shisha as well. These herbal blends typically advertise themselves as having no tar and nicotine, thus a safer alternative that is still enjoyable. Other Distributors provide tobacco-based flavored blends as well as a variety of hookahs.

Today's media sometimes suggests that hookah can be a more health threatening activity than smoking cigarettes. Research suggests that a session of hookah tobacco smoking (tobacco molasses) which lasts 45 minutes delivers slightly more tar and carbon monoxide (around 5-10%) than a packet of cigarettes.^[9] This study has, however, come under criticism for using unrealistically high temperatures for the tobacco (600-650 degrees C) and using arbitrary figures for tar filtration rates.^{[citation needed]} This could possibly have skewed results, as the carcinogenic and toxin levels of smoke increases dramatically with temperature (Wynder 1958). Common practice is to keep temperatures to degrees which do not "char" the hookah; that is within a temperature range of 100-150 C. (Chaouachi K: Patologie associate all'uso del narghile). The effects of these lower temperatures on tar are inconclusive, though Chaouachi indicates the tar would be less harmful.

Some hookah tobaccos claim to contain 0.0% Tar, but this is misleading due to the fact that tar is created when tobacco burns.

However research has indicated that the use of the hookah may reduce comparative cancer risks, though such studies are not conclusive (Hoffman^[10], Rakower, Salem 1983 and 90, Gupta Dheeraj 2001, Tandon 1995, Lubin 1992, Hazelton 2001, Stirling 1979). The levels of carbon monoxide produced during a hookah session varies widely depending on the type of coal used. Japanese charcoals are thought to produce lower amounts of carbon monoxide. However there is a notable difference in areas of carbon monoxide absorption, in that while cigarettes have a notable effect on the small respiratory tracts rather, shisha smoking mostly affects the major airways (Bakir 1991, Kiter). This means a lessened FEV vs FEV1/FVC ratio compared to cigarettes, which is believed to be less harmful for the airways long-term.

A report^[11] released in 2005 by the World Health Organization, researched the effects of water-pipe smoking, making the following claims:
1. Smoking tobacco products using a hookah is potentially a serious health hazard to both active and passive smokers.
2. Smoking tobacco products using a hookah is not a risk-free alternative to using cigarettes.
3. The volume of smoke inhaled in an average hour-long hookah-smoking session is 100 - 200 times the volume of smoke inhaled as a result of smoking a cigarette.
4. Smoke from a hookah contains high levels of poisonous substances, even after it has bubbled through the water. These include carbon monoxide, heavy metals and carcinogens.
5. Burning charcoal or other fuels also produce carbon monoxide, heavy metals and carcinogens, adding to the potential health hazards.
6. Pregnant women and unborn babies are more at risk from the potential health hazards of hookah-smoking, whether the woman actively smokes or is a passive smoker.
7. The air around a recently-smoked hookah contains not only tobacco smoke, but also the smoke from the heat source (e.g. charcoal). Consequently non-smoking bystanders are subjected to a 'serious risk.'
8. There is no incontrovertible evidence to show that devices or accessories can make hookah-smoking safer.
9. Diseases, such as tuberculosis and hepatitis, can be transmitted by sharing a mouthpiece.
10. The taste and smell of the smoke is made more appealing by flavouring and sweetening the tobacco. This may account for the fact that some people - especially young people - begin to use hookahs when they would not otherwise use tobacco.

A popular article by K Chaouachi, a French researcher who has been studying hookah usage and effects throughout the world since 1997, highlighted the mistakes and errors made by the WHO TobReg in its report^[12]. The WHO TobReg's report is used in a lot of media articles about hookah smoking and its effects. Chaouachi also authored a book^[13] in 2007 which offers a complete look at data collected from his studies on hookahs and hookah users.

Hookahs can also be smoked with herbal flavours. These contain Sugar Cane Bagasse with no tobacco, nicotine or tar. The popular brands are Soex, Highlife & Black Label. This new method of smoking is aimed at replacing tobacco and its health effects. Since no reported problems have arisen with the use of Herbal shisha, there has been no need for any more extensive studies. Although the studies that have been done have shown that smoking herbal shisha as apposed to tobacco will greatly reduce the health risks associated with smoking tobacco.^[14]

Many articles^[15] suggest that there is simply not enough research to provide answers to determine the effects of hookah smoking. Research is under way by Fogarty International Center-funded Syrian Center for Tobacco Studies, Egyptian Smoking Prevention Research Institute, Research for International Tobacco Control-funded Tobacco Prevention and Control Research Group at the American University of Beirut, Lebanon.

• The Sacred Narghile Facts about Shisha & Health Effects
• Hookah news page - Alcohol and Drugs History Society
• The Real Facts about Hookah Smoking, and the World Health Organization (WHO) Report on Hookahs
• Hookah trend is puffing along - USA Today
• Your hookah gallery