From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Hypnosis is "a trancelike state that resembles sleep but is induced by a person whose suggestions are readily accepted by the subject" says the website Definition of hypnosis - Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.^[1]

Contents 1 History 2 Theories of hypnosis 2.1 Social constructionism and role-playing theory 2.2 Dissociation and neodissociation theories 2.3 Neuropsychological theory of hypnosis 2.4 Hypnosis as a conditioned process leading to sleep 2.5 Hyper–suggestibility theory 2.6 Informational theory 2.7 Systems theory 3 Views on theoretical debate 4 Research on hypnosis 4.1 Clinical studies 4.2 Brain imaging 5 Hypnosis methodologies and effects 5.1 General methods 5.1.1 Common hypnosis phases 5.2 General effects 5.2.1 Focused attention 5.2.2 Suggestibility 5.3 Clinical observations of various depths of hypnosis 5.3.1 Breuer's absent pupillary reflex sign 6 Medical and other applications 6.1 Hypnotherapy 6.2 Organizations promoting hypnosis 6.3 Medical and dental application 6.4 Educational applications 6.5 Hypnodermatology 6.6 Surgery 6.7 Other uses 7 Entertainment and stage application 8 Variations 8.1 Self-hypnosis 8.2 Walking hypnosis 8.3 Waking hypnosis 8.4 Mass application 8.5 Indirect application 8.6 Post-hypnotic suggestion 9 Possible dangers of hypnosis 9.1 Extreme reactions 9.2 False memory 10 Common misconceptions 10.1 Control 10.2 Hypnosis is caused by the hypnotist's power 10.3 One is Unconscious and Unaware in Hypnosis 10.4 Weak-mindedness 10.5 Overactive imagination 10.6 Instant Induction and Speed-Trance 11 Hypnosis in popular media 12 National Occupational Standards 12.1 UK 12.2 U.S.A. 12.3 India 12.4 Australia 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links 16.1 Societies 16.2 Journals 16.3 Articles 16.4 Communities

Main article: History of hypnosis

Social constructionism and role-playing theory of hypnosis, discovered by Jun Zhou in the early 18th century^{[2][page # needed]}, suggests that individuals are playing a role and that really there is no such thing as hypnosis. A relationship is built depending on how much rapport has been established between the "hypnotist" and the subject (see Hawthorne effect, Pygmalion effect, and the Placebo effect).

Some psychologists such as Robert Baker claim that what we call hypnosis is actually a form of learned social behavior, a complex hybrid of social compliance, relaxation, and suggestibility that can account for many esoteric behavioral manifestations.^{[3][page # needed]}

Nicholas Spanos states, "hypnotic procedures influence behavior indirectly by altering subjects' motivations, expectations and interpretations."^{[4][page # needed]}

Pierre Janet originally developed the idea of dissociation of consciousness as a result of his work with hysterical patients. He believed that hypnosis was an example of dissociation whereby areas of an individual's behavioral control are split off from ordinary awareness. Hypnosis would remove some control from the conscious mind and the individual would respond with autonomic, reflexive behavior. Weitzenhoffer describes hypnosis via this theory as "dissociation of awareness from the majority of sensory and even strictly neural events taking place."^{[5][page # needed]}

Anna Gosline says in a NewScientist.com article:

"Gruzelier and his colleagues studied brain activity using an fMRI while subjects completed a standard cognitive exercise, called the Stroop task.

The team screened subjects before the study and chose 12 that were highly susceptible to hypnosis and 12 with low susceptibility. They all completed the task in the fMRI under normal conditions and then again under hypnosis.

Throughout the study, both groups were consistent in their task results, achieving similar scores regardless of their mental state. During their first task session, before hypnosis, there were no significant differences in brain activity between the groups.

But under hypnosis, Gruzelier found that the highly susceptible subjects showed significantly more brain activity in the anterior cingulate gyrus than the weakly susceptible subjects. This area of the brain has been shown to respond to errors and evaluate emotional outcomes.

The highly susceptible group also showed much greater brain activity on the left side of the prefrontal cortex than the weakly susceptible group. This is an area involved with higher level cognitive processing and behaviour."^[6]

Ivan Pavlov believed that hypnosis was a "partial sleep". He observed that the various degrees of hypnosis did not significantly differ physiologically from the waking state and hypnosis depended on insignificant changes of environmental stimuli. Pavlov also suggested that lower brain stem mechanisms were involved in hypnotic conditioning.^{[7][page # needed] [8]}

Currently a more popular theory, hyper–suggestibility theory states that the subject focuses attention by responding to the suggestion of the hypnotist. As attention is focused and magnified, the hypnotist's words are gradually accepted without the subject carrying any conscious censorship of what is being said. This is not unlike the athlete listening to the last pieces of advice from a coach minutes before an important sport event; concentration filters out anything that is unimportant and magnifies what is said about what really matters for the subject.^[2]

Informational theory uses a brain-as-computer model. In electronic systems, a system adjusts its feedback networks to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for optimum functioning, called the "steady state". Increasing the receptability of a receptor enables messages to be more clearly received from a transmitter, primarily by trying to reduce the interference (noise) as much as possible. Thus, the object of the hypnotist is to use techniques to reduce the interference and increase the receptability of specific messages (suggestions).^[2]

This theory may be regarded as an extension of James Braid's original conceptualization of hypnosis^[9] as involving a process of greatly enhancing or depressing the activity of the nervous system. It takes and establishes the necessary organization of the nervous system into interacting subsystems. On that basis it develops a picture of hypnotic phenomena as involving not only increasing or decreasing of the activity of particular subsystems, but on their interaction. As a result it brings into center stage the phenomenon of feed-back loops, familiar in systems theory, and thereby throws light on a mechanism for creating the more extreme of hypnotic phenomena.^[10][11]

The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page.(December 2007) Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved.

Though various myths have been spread by unfounded conjecture about hypnosis, the field has received significant support from the science-oriented psychology community due to the rigorous research of hypnotic phenomena conducted by some practitioners and theorists (Sala 1999). Heap and Dryden (1991:17) considers the theoretical debates on hypnotherapy to have been productive and that hypnosis has benefited from the attentions of those involved in the controversies - people of calibre and intellectual integrity. Heap and Dryden also state that, in contrast, hypnotherapy from the 18th century and animal magnetism down to the new age therapies of the neo-Ericksonians have been characterized by gullibility and fraudulence.^{[dubious – discuss]}

Ambrose and Newbold (1980) consider the theoretical debate surrounding hypnosis theories to have been productive, especially in relation to distinguishing evidence based research from conjecture.

While one of the first scientifically controlled studies, as opposed to clinical studies, was done by Dr. Robert W. Habbick of Syracuse University as recently as 1968, there is a long tradition (over a century) of hypnosis clinical research which has allowed scientists to test key ideas in the debate. Much clinical research has been conducted into the nature and effects of hypnosis and suggestion, and hypnosis continues to be a popular (if somewhat peripheral) tool in contemporary psychological research. A number of different strands of hypnosis research are apparent: that which examines the state of hypnosis itself, that which examines the effects and properties of suggestions in and out of hypnosis, and that which examines the relief of pain and nociception, and when combined adjunctively with other therapeutic techniques it has been demonstrated to be a powerful tool (it is effective for weight loss, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), anxiety conditions and many more).^{[citation needed]}

Recently, there are reports that efforts to reduce obesity with hypnosis (when used in combination with cognitive behavioral therapy, exercise, and a low-fat diet) may be effective.^[12]

In 1996, the National Institutes of Health technology assessment panel judged hypnosis to be an effective intervention for alleviating pain from cancer and other chronic conditions. A large number of clinical studies also indicate that hypnosis can reduce the acute pain experienced by patients undergoing burn-wound debridement, enduring bone marrow aspirations and childbirth. An analysis published in a recent issue of the International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, for example, found that hypnotic suggestions relieved the pain of 75% of 933 subjects participating in 27 different experiments.^[13]

With the recent advent of new brain imaging techniques (chiefly magnetic resonance imaging [MRI], with EEG and positron emission tomography [PET] contributing to a lesser extent) there has been a resurgence of interest in the relationship between hypnosis and brain function. Any human experience is reflected in some way in the brain – seeing colors or motion is underscored by activity in the visual cortex, feeling fear is mediated by activity in the amygdala – and so hypnosis and suggestion are expected to have observable effects upon brain function. An important issue for researchers conducting brain imaging is to separate the effects of hypnosis and suggestion — knowing that a suggestion given during hypnosis affects brain area X does not just tell us about hypnosis, it tells us about the effects of the suggestion too. To account for this, experiments need to include a non-hypnotic-response-to-suggestion condition —only this way can the specific effects of hypnosis be examined.

A number of brain-imaging studies have been conducted on hypnotized subjects. A selection of these studies are explained and summarized below:

One controlled scientific experiment postulates that hypnosis may alter our perception of conscious experience in a way not possible when people are not "hypnotized", at least in "highly hypnotizable" people. In this experiment, color perception was changed by hypnosis in "highly hypnotizable" people as determined by (PET) scans (Kosslyn et al., 2000). (This research does not compare the effects of hypnosis on less hypnotizable people and could therefore show little causal effect due to the lack of a control group.)

Another research example, employing event-related functional MRI (fMRI) and EEG coherence measures, compared certain specific neural activity "...during Stroop task performance between participants of low and high hypnotic susceptibility, at baseline and after hypnotic induction". According to its authors, "the fMRI data revealed that conflict-related ACC activity interacted with hypnosis and hypnotic susceptibility, in that highly susceptible participants displayed increased conflict-related neural activity in the hypnosis condition compared to baseline, as well as with respect to subjects with low susceptibility." (Egner et al., 2005)

Skeptics dispute the significance of such findings, claiming that such changes cannot be shown to be particular to the hypnotized state, and that any other action such as daydreaming is also likely to alter brain activity in some manner. However, in recent studies, PET scans of subjects while hypnotized to experience auditory hallucinations, demonstrated regional blood flow in the same areas of the brain as normal hearing; whereas subjects engaged in vividly imagining hearing noises, did not show such blood flow.^[13] The subject is still a matter of current research and scientific debate.

The act of inducing hypnosis is referred to as an induction procedure. There is no consensus among practitioners or researchers as to what method is the most effective induction procedure. Many hypnotists associate hypnotic induction with a swinging pendulum, but there are many usable techniques. Most commonly, the hypnotist will use calming techniques designed to relax the subject by suggesting that their limbs are going limp, eyelids are getting heavy, etc. Relaxation is not a key factor, however, as hypnosis can also be induced during vigorous exercise.

There are great differences in length of an induction. Progressive Relaxation (PR), is a method which can take up to half an hour or more. Rapid Induction (RI) can induce hypnosis in just seconds by combining the subject's anticipation with shocking the subject. Using RI is absolutely necessary for a stage hypnotist, as PR takes more time than a show audience is willing to wait.

Hypnotic susceptibility is a measurable amount of responsiveness that one can have to hypnosis. Not all people can be hypnotized, but about 10% of people respond exceptionally well.^[14] There is little evidence linking susceptibility to intelligence or personality traits, but some research has linked hypnosis to the amount of imagination in subjects. Recent research suggests that highly hypnotizable people have high sensory and perceptual gating abilities that allow them to block some stimuli from awareness (Barnier, McConkey, and Wright, 2004).

There is a common claim that no one can be hypnotized against his will.^[15] Some hypnotists respond with the counter-claim that, while it is not possible to make someone do anything against his will, it is possible to change what it is that he wishes to do. This lowering in inhibitions is called disinhibition and can sometimes be found in the hypnotized subject. Disinhibition leads the subject to performing acts that he would normally consider socially unacceptable or simply would not do.

New research, developed by Board Certified Hypnotist Gerald Kein, has claimed that everybody is equally hypnotizable and "people accept hypnosis in direct relationship to the amount of fear they have". Successful hypnosis is attained by the removal of any inhibitory fear. With fear removed, most individuals can be deeply hypnotized in 5-10 seconds. Licensed mental health professionals are generally not trained in these techniques and use the old PR hypnotic induction developed in the 1940s (Kein, 1985).

From "How to Create a Self Hypnosis Recording". wikiHow. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.

1. Preparation
   The first phase typically involves having the subject sit or lie down and getting comfortable.
2. Induction
   Induction takes the subject from normal awareness to a state of enhanced relaxation.
3. Deepening
   The deepening phase takes the subject from a very relaxed state into the fully "hypnotized" state, where conscious thinking is minimized.
4. Purpose
   If the purpose of the hypnosis session is amusement, then this phase is when the subjects are asked to say or perform things that will entertain the audience. If the purpose is a therapeutic effect, this is when the subject is encouraged to see themselves as what they want to become, such as a non-smoker. If positive punishment is used, then this is when the subject is told that they will feel ill, or something similar, when the subject engages in the activity that they want to stop.
5. Awakening
   The awakening phase is when the subject is taken out of the hypnotic state. If the session is to try to alleviate insomnia, then the subject is encouraged to sleep, otherwise the subject is brought back to a state of awareness with the conscious mind fully reengaged.

Some schools of thought hold that hypnosis as a state is very similar to other states of extreme concentration, where a person becomes oblivious to his or her surroundings while lost in thought. Often suggested as an example is highway hypnosis, when a driver suddenly finds his or her self much further down the road without any memory of driving the intervening distance.

According to state theorists, the act of hypnotizing, is, in effect, the act of deliberately and mechanically inducing a similar state.^[16]

Some psychologists have developed studies that show a correlation between the effects people display when acting as "hypnotized" and their level of suggestibility. Some of these studies involve the Harvard scale, and Stanford scale.

Hypnosis has been described as "suspension of the critical factor" which expands on the idea of "increased suggestibility". A person who claims to be hypnotized may accept statements as true that he or she would normally reject. However, this still does not show the validity of hypnosis as a real state, as subjects carrying out role playing would likewise answer seemingly illogically if convinced that was the paradigm.

It often appears as if the "hypnotized" participant accepts the authority of the "hypnotist" over his or her own experience. When asked after the conclusion of such a session, some participants claim to be genuinely unable to recall the incident, while others say that they had known the hypnotist was wrong but at the time it had seemed easier just to go along with his instructions. (Richard Feynman describes this, in his memoir Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!, as his own hypnotic experience.) The mechanism of this effect is, however, disputed. Some hypnotists would claim that this showed the difference between a deep and a shallow hypnotic trance, while skeptics would cite that such effects can be duplicated in other circumstances where an agent holds authority, such as the Milgram experiment. Because of the ability to achieve these effects through normal varieties of communication and circumstance, there is no scientific theory that supports the existence of hypnosis.

An objective sign of hypnosis can be observed by a pupillary reflex test, which demonstrates a response that is opposed to the normal physiological response. When subjects are in a profound hypnotic state, they are asked to remain in hypnosis and open their eyes. The subjects' pupils are usually dilated and remain dilated, or react poorly, when a penlight is shone into them (the normal non-hypnotic response is a contraction of the pupil).

The esoteric publication Hypnotism, by Danish hypnotist Carl Septus, is an early reference work that notes the absent pupillary reflex sign. Septus states specifically that after subjects have been asked to open their eyes during a deep trance, light shone into the eyes does not cause pupil contraction. The hypnotist may use suggestion to keep the subject in hypnosis, but the hypnotist must avoid suggestions relating to eyes, visual focus, light, and the pupils' dilation or contraction.^[17]

Main article: Hypnotherapy

Hypnotherapy is a term to describe the use of hypnosis in a therapeutic context. Many hypnotherapists refer to their practice as "clinical work". Hypnotherapy can either be used as an addition to the work of licensed physicians or psychologists, or it can be used in a stand-alone environment where the hypnotherapist in question usually owns his or her own business. The majority of these stand-alone certified hypnotherapists (C.Hts in the U.S., Diploma. Hyp in the UK) today earn a large portion of their money through the cessation of smoking (often in a single session) and the aid of weight loss (body sculpting). Psychologists and psychiatrists use hypnosis predominantly for the treatment of dissociative disorders, phobias, habit change, depression and post-traumatic syndromes.^[18] There is no evidence that 'incurable' diseases are curable with hypnosis (such as cancer, diabetes, and arthritis), but pain and other body functions related to the diseases are controllable.^{[19][20][21][22]} Some of the treatments practiced by hypnotherapists, in particular so-called regression, have been viewed with skepticism.^[23]

The American Medical Association and the American Psychological Association have both cautioned against the use of repressed memory therapy in dealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that "it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a true memory from a false one",^[24] and so the procedure is "fraught with problems of potential misapplication".^[25] (See also false memory). This is why forensic hypnosis is not widely used in many countries' legal systems. However, hypnosis therapy is frequently used by the public and there is no shortage of testimonial evidence of its helpfulness.

The American Society of Clinical Hypnosis and British Society of Clinical Hypnosis are organizations that attempt to promote the use of hypnosis to treat a wider variety of physical and psychological ailments. The American society was founded by Milton Erickson, who was opposed to unlicensed professionals performing therapeutic hypnosis.

One of the major initial applications of hypnosis was the suppression of pain during medical procedures. This was supplanted (in the late 19th century) by the development of more reliable chemical anesthetics.

Hypnodontia – the use of hypnosis in dentistry – has a long history. Besides smoothing out dental procedures by way of its generalized anti-anxiety effects, use of hypnodontia can increase overall patient comfort, make the dental experience acceptable and bearable, decrease resistance to future intervention, and through posthypnotic suggestions, encourage more rapid recovery.

In a lecture to the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis (ASCH) during their annual conference at the State University Of New York, Dr. Milton Erickson taught the process of indirect hypnosis while Dr. Robert W. Habbick spoke of his research on the use of hypnosis in enhancing learning and reducing anxiety. Dr. Habbick explained the use of a triad of suggestions: "(a) enhancing confidence, while (b) strengthening focused interest in the work and (c) improving energy to do the studying necessary." The results of his controlled research pointed the way toward the need to apply hypnosis especially with students having trouble studying. In a more recent lecture, Dr. Habbick spoke in Boston to ASCH of the positive effects of using his suggested hypnosis triad with students at the Bureau of Study Council at Harvard University

Main article: Hypnodermatology

Hypnodermatology is the practice of treating skin diseases with hypnosis.

A study done at the Mt. Sinai School of Medicine looked at two groups of patients facing surgery for breast cancer. The group that received hypnosis prior to surgery reported less pain, nausea, and anxiety after surgery than the control group. There was a cost benefit as well, the average hypnosis patient reduced the cost of treatment by an average of $772.00. ^[26]

Michael R. Nash writes, in a 2001 article for Scientific American titled "The Truth and the Hype of Hypnosis", "using hypnosis, scientists have temporarily created hallucinations, compulsions, certain types of memory loss, false memories, and delusions in the laboratory so that these phenomena can be studied in a controlled environment."^[13]

In his book The Hidden Persuaders (1957) Vance Packard describes research involving behavior of housewives in supermarkets in the 1950's. Cameras were hidden to measure a shopper's eye-blink rate as she compared items. It was assumed that her eye-blink rate would increase as she performed mental calculations to determine which product was the best value. In fact, the cameras recorded an eye-blink rate which indicated that the housewife was, according to Packard, usually in a hypnotic state while shopping. This led manufacturers to produce new brands of laundry detergent in competition with their own, existing brands, where the primary differences were in the product names, colors and shapes of designs on the packages, which were designed to appeal to women at different times of their menstrual cycles. The effects of this research can be noted today by visiting the laundry detergent section of any American supermarket.

Hypnotism has also received publicity about its use in Forensics, Sports, Education, and physical therapy and rehabilitation. ^[27]

This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (September 2007)

Professor G.F. Wagstaff, of the University of Liverpool, carried out research around the phenomenon of stage hypnosis or hypnosis for entertainment. He surmised that rather than the subject being in an "altered state" rather they were affected significantly more by social factors and expectations.^[28]

Wagstaff's work explores how a hypnotist will carefully choose volunteers from the audience, put them into a trance using hypnosis, and then plant suggestions for them to perform. The critical factor in any stage hypnosis show is the choice of enthusiastic and credulous individuals. Various techniques exist for discerning whether an individual is a likely candidate for a hypnosis stage act, showing a higher than normal susceptibility. Often, the sheer willingness of audience members to volunteer is a sign that they will cooperate with the hypnotist's suggestions during the show whether or not they actually become hypnotized in the first place.^[28]

The process used to ensure participants presenting themselves as adequate for the stage starts with the initial call for volunteers from the audience. The hypnotist will use carefully selected terms in the initial call for volunteers. There will be a certain number of chairs, or spots on the stage which will usually be less than the number of initial volunteers. This will set up an unconscious sense of competition among those volunteers who really do want to participate.^{[citation needed]}

For example, the volunteers may be made to believe they are drunk, aliens speaking a strange alien language, naked or seeing others naked, six-year-old children, ballet dancers etc. Such suggestions are designed to be temporary, lasting the duration of the show. Stage hypnosis is a unique performance in that it involves real people from the audience responding in a variety of ways, making no two shows the same. There has been debate over the years as to whether some degree of fraud or collusion may be involved in some stage hypnosis acts.^{[citation needed]}

Sometimes a stage hypnosis begins with an "induction" in which the hypnotist asks the entire audience to close their eyes and listen to his/her words. He/she lulls everyone participating into a relaxed state with which he/she may observe who is more susceptible to be hypnotized. Often, people are simply unable to relax and go with the hypnotist's instructions due to an inability to relax and allow their minds to follow instructions without conscious thought or simply determination to not be induced.^{[citation needed]}

There are many behaviors that can be observed of those who "go under", such as slumping in their seat, head lolling to the side, falling into the lap of someone next to them, eye lids flickering, and an inability to wake when spoken to or prodded unless done so by the hypnotist himself. For those who are simply watching this show and seeing the person next to them become induced, it can be quite amazing to witness.^{[citation needed]}

The hypnotic state of a person performing on stage under supposedly the hypnotist control, is far different then a person seeking help to overcome habits, fears or stress management in a therapy environment.

Main article: Auto suggestion

Self-hypnosis (or auto suggestion) — hypnosis in which a person hypnotizes himself or herself without the assistance of another person to serve as the hypnotist — is a staple of hypnotherapy-related self-help programs. It is most often used to help the self-hypnotist stay on a diet, overcome smoking or some other addiction, or to generally boost the hypnotized person's self-esteem. It is rarely used for the more complex or controversial uses of hypnosis, which require the hypnotist to monitor the hypnotized person's reactions and responses and respond accordingly. Most people who practice self-hypnosis require a focus in order to become fully hypnotized; there are many computer programs on the market that can ostensibly help in this area, though few, if any, have been scientifically proven to aid self-hypnosis.

Some people use devices known as mind machines to help them go into self-hypnosis more readily. A mind machine consists of glasses with different colored flashing LEDs on the inside, and headphones. The LEDs stimulate the visual channel, while the headphones stimulate the audio channel with similar or slightly different frequencies designed to produce a certain mental state. The use of binaural beats in the audio is common; it is said to produce hypnosis more readily.

Self-hypnosis is a skill that can be improved as time goes by. People use techniques such as imagining walking down 10 steps, feeling deeper relaxed as they imagine slowly walking down each step, one at a time. It is a good idea to initially seek the skills of a practicing hypnotherapist in order to understand what it feels like to be in a hypnotic trance. This greatly helps, as the individual can aim to replicate this state. Alternatively, a person may wish to use hypnosis recordings instead.

Also known as environmental hypnosis, this, as defined by Hypnosis Online, is a naturally occurring trance that one can enter whilst performing a monotonous repetitive task, such as walking or gardening, or in sedentary pursuits such as listening to a lecture or reading, in which one's attention drifts from the task into a trance-like state, often known as "zoning out". This natural reaction to boredom is often harnessed by athletes to render them oblivious to distractions, especially physical symptoms of pain and fatigue, and the state is known in this context as being "in the zone".

Individuals can be trained in how to enter this walking hypnosis state. Many students learn how to use waking hypnosis in their classrooms so that all the information they receive is permanently embedded in their subconscious mind and can be accessed whenever needed. A competent nonlicensed hypnotist can easily teach these techniques to anyone.

This phenomenon, as expounded by Melvin Powers in 1955, involves altering the behaviour of a subject by suggestion without inducing a trance. Related to the placebo effect, a subject becomes subconsciously convinced that what they are being told is inevitable reality, for example that the air in the room will cause them to swallow. They can be convinced that a completely benign substance is actually a drug that will induce whatever effect is suggested. In order to work, the subject must completely trust the source of the suggestion or be subconsciously convinced by a calm authoritative tone.

Influencing crowds through common longings and yearnings by a demagogue is called mass hypnosis. Generally, mass hypnosis is applied to religious sessions. Many forms of music and dance can be used to create religious trance.^[29]

In addition to direct application of hypnosis (that is, treatment of conditions by means of hypnosis), there is also indirect application, wherein hypnosis is used to facilitate another procedure. Some people seem more able to display "enhanced functioning", such as the suppression of pain, while utilizing hypnosis.

Main article: Post-hypnotic suggestion

Robin Waterfield writes, in his 2002 book Hidden Depths: The Story of Hypnosis, "a person can act, some time later, on a suggestion seeded during the hypnotic session. Post-hypnotic suggestions can last for a long time. A hypnotherapist told one of his patients, who was also a friend: 'When I touch you on the finger you will immediately be hypnotized.' Fourteen years later, at a dinner party, he touched him deliberately on the finger and his head fell back against the chair."^[30]

Pratt et al., write, in their 1988 book A Clinical Hypnosis Primer, "A hypnotized patient will respond to a suggestion literally. A suggestion that requires conscious interpretation can have undesirable effects." They give the following report taken from Hartland, 1971, p.37: "A patient who was terrified to go into the street because of the traffic was once told by a hypnotist that when she left his room, she would no longer bother about the traffic and would be able to cross the road without the slightest fear. She obeyed his instructions so literally that she ended up in a hospital." ^[31]

They also mention:

From Kleinhauz and Beran, 1984:

"In one case, a woman had experienced 10 years of fatigue, irritability, and periods of childish behavior during which her perceptions were distorted. The source of the problem was traced back to a stage performance 10 years earlier, when she was regressed to a traumatic period of her life."

From Kleinhauz and Eli, 1987:

"In one case, a dentist using hypnorelaxation with a patient complied with her request to provide direction suggestions to stop smoking. The patient's underlying psychological conflicts, which the dentist was not qualified to assess, led to the development of an anxiety/depressive reaction."

From Machovec, 1987:

"A woman undergoing psychotherapy facilitated by hypnosis attempted to use the procedures she had learned to relieve her husband's dental pain. During the deepening technique of arm levitation, her husband's fingertips 'stuck' to his head, and a therapist had to intervene to end the trance state." ^[32]

Licensed hypnotherapists^{[attribution needed]} have expressed concerns that practitioners of hypnosis who are unlicensed can evoke intense emotions in clients that they are not trained to treat. These abreactions can occur recalling traumatic events.

False memory obtained via hypnosis has figured prominently in many investigations and court cases, including cases of alleged sexual abuse. There is no scientific way to prove that any of these recollections are completely accurate.

Individuals have been led by an errant hypnotist to believe in things that they later were able to show did not happen[1].

The American Medical Association and the American Psychological Association have both cautioned against the use of repressed memory therapy in dealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that "it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a true memory from a false one",^[24] and so the procedure is "fraught with problems of potential misapplication".^[25] (See also false memory).

The notion of hypnosis has elicited many presentations in popular culture. Intrinsically, the notion that people are susceptible to commands outside their conscious control can be an effective way of representing the notion of the fallible narrator. Due to the nature of belief in hypnosis, it's possible that popular beliefs regarding hypnosis actually influence the experience, reinforcing the beliefs.

Some believe that hypnosis is a form of mind control and/or brainwashing that can control a person's behavior and judgment and therefore could potentially cause them harm. These beliefs are not generally based on scientific evidence, as there is no scientific consensus on whether mind control even exists. But there are people interested in research and funding to help work on controlling others and perfecting mind control techniques. These techniques can be researched with the scientific method and reasoning skills.^[33][34]

English entertainer Derren Brown appeared in a series on Channel 4 (in the UK) and the SCI FI Channel (in the US), as the central figure in "Mind Control With Derren Brown," ^[35] which kicked off on July 26, 2007, with the first of six one-hour episodes. This series has also been shown on other cable channels. In the pilot, Brown appears to use a simple verbal suggestion to manipulate a store clerk into accepting a plain piece of white paper as a twenty dollar bill. He also asks subway passengers where they are getting off and then appears to cause them to forget the name of the stop. Additionally, he gets people to hand him their wallets and walk away from him. In other episodes, he convinces people that he is reading their minds when, in fact, he claims he is simply giving them verbal suggestions which influence their subsequent thinking. He emphasizes that he has no special personal powers and there is no proof that any of his magical "effects" actually employ hypnosis techinques at all.

Due to the stage hypnotist's showmanship and their perpetuated illusion of possessing mysterious abilities, hypnosis is often seen as caused by the hypnotist's power. The reality is the hypnotist has no power other than to offer suggestions which the subject or client may choose to respond to or not to respond to. But some people are able to hypnotise just within seconds while others take a lot of time. ^[36]

In a stage hypnosis situation the hypnotist picks out people who appear extrovert and willing to put on a show. The hypnotist then gives them a suggestion, such as sing like Elvis. The trick is that the hypnotist gives the suggestion in a manner that it will be followed. The pressure of this, plus the pressure of the audience expecting some entertainment is usually enough to persuade an extrovert to do almost anything. In other words the participants are persuaded to 'play along'. This gives the impression that the hypnotist has total control over them, which he does not.

While the word hypnosis is derived from the Greek word for sleep, and many hypnotists still use the language of sleep and awake, hypnosis is not sleep.

From the mental standpoint, a hypnotic subject is relaxed yet alert and always aware at some level. Some choose to think of this as a state of mind called "trance".^[36]

Due to the popular but incorrect notion of hypnosis as mind control, some people believe that the ability to experience hypnosis is related to strength and soundness of mind. However, scientists note that personality traits such as gullibility or submissiveness or factors such as low intelligence are not related to hypnotize-ability. Research studies suggest that none of intelligence, gender, or personality traits affect responsiveness to hypnosis and that hypnotize-ability may in fact be hereditary or genetic in nature.^[13]

Another misconception in popular culture is that hypnosis is often the product of vivid imaginations and that hypnotic phenomena is merely imagined in the mind. However, research indicates many imaginative people do not fare well as good hypnotic subjects. Furthermore, studies using PET scans have shown that hypnotized subjects suggested to have auditory hallucinations demonstrated regional blood flow in the same areas of the brain as real hearing, whereas subjects merely imagining hearing noise did not.^[13]

It is a misconception that induction into hypnosis is time consuming and requires complete relaxation. Hypnosis through lengthy relaxation or visual experiences is the most common form of induction, but speed-trance instant inductions (2-10 seconds) is a method for induction or re-induction among stage hypnotists, as well as clinical hypnotists seeking to manage trauma or overcome anxiety and resistance. It is possible to hypnotize a subject in just a few seconds by causing confusion, loss of equilibrium, misdirection, shock, and eye fixation. Speed-trance is a term used by John Cerbone and Richard Nongard (2007) to describe this virtually instantaneous phenomenon. Variations of rapid inductions based on the Milton Erickson Handshake Interrupt and its use by Richard Bandler and practitioners of NLP have been widely taught.^{[citation needed]}

• Popular magician/mentalist "The Amazing Kreskin" disputes the validity of hypnosis and once offered $100,000 to anyone who can prove such a thing as a "hypnotic trance" exists to his satisfaction.^[37]

• The Showtime Network television show Penn & Teller: Bullshit!, which features comedy duo Penn & Teller, took a skeptical look at hypnosis in one of their episodes. They took the view that the so-called hypnotic trance does not exist at all, and that all hypnosis sessions are merely voluntary shared fantasies. Penn and Teller also state that the unusual behaviors people exhibit during a hypnosis session have always been well within their reach.

• Paramount syndicated television show The Montel Williams Show, featured a presentation by Hypnotist The Incredible Boris Cherniak where hypnotized subjects reacted to a variety of comical situations, while at the same time showcasing the therapeutic effects of hypnosis such as quitting smoking.^[38]

• The British car show Top Gear featured one of the presenters, Richard Hammond, getting hypnotized. Once hypnotized, he manifested a number of personality and mental changes, including not remembering how to drive a car, and thinking that a miniature child's version of a Porsche 911 was his own car, and attempting to drive it around in the studio.

• An episode of MythBusters dealt with hypnosis, attempting to ascertain if post-hypnotic suggestion could influence the actions of a subject against their will and/or be used to improve memory. The conclusion was that hypnosis did not alter their behaviour, but was based on unnamed author published 'self-hypnosis' CD's of indiscernable quality or expertise.

• In the 2001 movie Zoolander Derek Zoolander is hypnotized to the song 'Relax' by Mugatu to kill the Prime Minister of Malaysia.

• The internet website YouTube has become a popular forum for learning techniques associated with both clinical hypnosis and stage hypnosis. Don Spencer, Derren Brown, Richard Nongard, Richard Bandler, Peter Powers and others have popular entertainment or instructional videos that have been seen on YouTube.com and this has increased the ease or popularity of learning hypnosis or viewing hypnosis as entertainment. It has also brought about the phenomena of "street" hypnosis.

• Several songs are named after hypnosis. These include "Hypnotized" by Fleetwood Mac, "Hypnotize" by System of a Down, The Notorious B.I.G, and The White Stripes, "Mass Hypnosis" by Sepultura, "Hypnotized" by Heathen, Hypnotic Suggestion EP by The Apples in Stereo and also "Are You A Hypnotist??" by The Flaming Lips.

• In the popular animated show Futurama, a recurring character is the Hypnotoad. He is first seen having hypnotized the judges of a dog show, enabling him to win. In a later episode, he is shown to have his own popular television show, "Everybody Loves Hypnotoad".

• In the long running BBC science-fiction series Doctor Who, the recurring Time Lord villain the Master will sometimes use hypnosis to bring subjects under his control. This is usually achieved by him staring the victim in the eyes and saying, "I am the Master and you will obey me!". In the 1985 story The Mark of the Rani, the Master uses a pendulum to hypnotize a victim.

• in Woody Allen's The Curse of the Jade Scorpion, two detectives are stage-hypnotized only to become "word-triggered" thieves.

• Derren Brown claims to use hypnotism as part of his performances in Mind Control with Derren Brown.

• In the 1948 MGM musical, The Pirate, starring Gene Kelly and Judy Garland, Kelly's character uses mesmerism/hypnosis that puts Garland's character in a trance, freeing her spirit and evoking her to reveal her fantasies and desires to him and the audience.

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In 2002 UK Department for Education and Skills developed The National Occupational Standards for hypnotherapy based on National Qualifications Framework of The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority and started conferring optional certificates and diplomas in international level through National Awarding Bodies by assessing learning outcomes of training /accrediting prior experiential learning.

The United States Department of Labour, Directory of Occupational Titles (D.O.T. 079.157.010) supplies the following definition:

Hypnotherapist -- Induces hypnotic state in client to increase motivation or alter behavior pattern through hypnosis. Consults with client to determine the nature of problem. Prepares client to enter hypnotic states by explaining how hypnosis works and what client will experience. Tests subject to determine degrees of physical and emotional suggestibility. Induces hypnotic state in client using individualized methods and techniques of hypnosis based on interpretation of test results and analysis of client's problem. May train client in self-hypnosis conditioning.

The Indian Ministry of Health & Family Welfare stated that hypnotherapy is a recognized mode of therapy to be practiced by only appropriately trained individuals.

Professional hypnotherapy and use of the occupational titles hypnotherapist or clinical hypnotherapist is not government regulated in Australia.

In 1996, as a result of a three-year research project led by Lindsay B. Yeates, the Australian Hypnotherapists' Association[2] (founded in 1949), the oldest hypnotism-oriented professional organization in Australia, instituted a peer-group accreditation system for full-time Australian professional hypnotherapists, the first of its kind in the world.^[39] The system was further revised in 1999.^[40] The Australian Hypnotherapists Association is a member of the Psychotherapy and Counselling Federation of Australia (PACFA) which represents many counselling and psychotherapy associations in Australia as well as many other professions.

However, many clinical hypnotherapists and Hypnotherapy Associations do not wish to be represented by PACFA simply because the are not representing hypnotherapy itself.

Australian hypnotism/hypnotherapy organizations (including the Australian Hypnotherapists Association) are seeking government regulation similar to other mental health professions. However the various tiers of Australian government have shown consistently over they last two decades that they are opposed to government legislation and in favour of self regulation by industry groups.

With this in mind in 2007 a majority of professional hypnosis groups — including professional organizations, private teaching organizations, and other hypntotism-associated professional bodies — have agreed to work toward creating a new national body to be known as Hypnotherapy Council of Australia. The Council of Clinical Hypnotherapists (CCH) will represent the Hypnosis Associations from the Southern Region of Australia, i.e. the States of Victoria, Tasmania and Western Australia.

• Atavistic regression
• Chicken hypnosis
• Covert hypnosis
• Hypnagogia
• Hypnofetishism
• Hypnosurgery
• Neuro-linguistic programming
• Sedative (also known as sedative-hypnotic drug)
• Bicameralism (psychology)

• (1 June 1991) in Heap, Michael, and Windy Dryden (eds.): Hypnotherapy: A Handbook (Psychotherapy Handbooks). Open University Press. ISBN 0335098878. 
• Ambrose, G; Newbold G. (1980). Handbook of Medical Hypnosis, 4, London: Balliere Tindalt. 
• Della, Sala (1999). Mind Myths: Exploring Popular Assumptions about the Mind and Brain. New York: Wiley. 

• The National Guild of Hypnotists - USA
• The National Council for Hypnotherapy - UK
• UK Confederation of Hypnotherapy Organisations (UKCHO) - UK
• British Society of Clinical and Academic Hypnosis
• The International Society of Hypnosis
• American Society for Clinical Hypnosis
• TTI institute Hypnosis and Mind Control Studies
• European Society of Hypnosis
• American Board of Hypnotherapy
• General Hypnotherapy Standards Council
• The British Society of Clinical Hypnosis
• The Council of Clinical Hypnotherapists - Australia

• International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis A peer-reviewed journal focussing on experimental issues
• American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis A peer-reviewed journal focussing on clinical issues
• Contemporary Hypnosis A peer-reviewed journal covering experimental and clinical research

• Scientific American Article on Hypnosis
• British Psychological Society report on the Nature of Hypnosis

• Free Hypnosis
• Hypnotize Me!