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James Ephraim Lovelock
Born	26 July 1919
Residence	United Kingdom, United States of America
Nationality	British
Field	Chemistry, Earth Science
Institutions	Independent researcher
Alma mater	University of Manchester London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine University of London
Known for	Electron capture detector Gaia hypothesis
Notable prizes	FRS, 1974 Tswett Medal, 1975 ACS, 1980 WMO Norbert Gerbier Prize, 1988 CBE, 1990 CH, 2003

Dr. James Ephraim Lovelock, CH, CBE, FRS (born 26 July 1919) is an independent scientist, author, researcher, environmentalist, and futurist who lives in Cornwall, in the south west of Great Britain. He is known for proposing the Gaia hypothesis, in which he postulates that the Earth functions as a kind of superorganism.

Contents 1 Biography 2 Career 2.1 CFCs 2.2 Gaia 2.3 Nuclear power 2.4 Climate and mass human mortality 2.5 Ocean Pipes proposal 3 Books 4 References 5 External links 5.1 Interviews

Lovelock was born in Letchworth Garden City. He studied chemistry at the University of Manchester before taking up a Medical Research Council post at the Institute for Medical Research in London^[1].

In 1948, Lovelock received a Ph.D. in medicine at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Within the United States he has conducted research at Yale, Baylor College of Medicine, and Harvard University^[1].

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A lifelong inventor, Lovelock has created and developed many scientific instruments, some of which have been adopted by NASA in its programme of planetary exploration. It was while working for NASA that Lovelock developed the Gaia Hypothesis, for which he is most widely known.

In early 1961, Lovelock was engaged by NASA to develop sensitive instruments for the analysis of extraterrestrial atmospheres and planetary surfaces. The Viking program that visited Mars in the late-1970s was motivated in part to determining whether Mars supported life, and many of the sensors and experiments that were ultimately deployed aimed to resolve this issue.

During work towards this program, Lovelock became interested in the composition of the Martian atmosphere, reasoning that many life forms on Mars would be obliged to make use of it (and, thus, alter it). However, the atmosphere was found to be in a stable condition close to its chemical equilibrium, with very little oxygen, methane, or hydrogen, but with an overwhelming abundance of carbon dioxide.

To Lovelock, the stark contrast between the Martian atmosphere and chemically-dynamic mixture of that of our Earth's biosphere was strongly indicative of the absence of life on the planet^[2]. However, when they were finally launched to Mars, the Viking probes still searched for life there. To date no evidence for either extant or extinct life has been found (although interest has recently revived with the discovery of unexpected methane in the atmosphere).

Lovelock invented the Electron Capture Detector, which ultimately assisted in discoveries about the persistence of CFCs and their role in stratospheric ozone depletion^[3][4][5].

Lovelock was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1974.

After studying the operation of the Earth's sulfur cycle^[6], Lovelock and his colleagues developed the CLAW hypothesis as a possible example of biological control of the Earth's climate^[7].

In 1990, Lovelock was awarded the first Dr A.H. Heineken Prize for the Environment by the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.

An independent scientist, inventor, and author, Lovelock works out of a barn-turned-laboratory in Cornwall.

In 2003, he was appointed a Companion of Honour (CH) by Queen Elizabeth II.

Lovelock is currently president of the Marine Biological Association (MBA).

Main article: free radical halogenation

After the development of his electron capture detector in the late 1960s, Lovelock was the first to detect the widespread presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. He found a concentration of 60 parts per trillion of CFC-11 over Ireland and, in a partially self-funded research expedition in 1972, went on to measure the concentration of CFC-11 from the northern hemisphere to the Antarctic aboard the research vessel RV Shackleton^[9]. He found the gas in each of the 50 air samples that he collected but, not knowing of the risk that chlorine posed to the ozone layer, incorrectly concluded that the level of CFCs constituted "no conceivable hazard"^[9]. However, the experiment did provide the first useful data on the ubiquitous presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. The damage caused to the ozone layer by the photolysis of CFCs was later discovered by Frank Rowland and Mario Molina . After hearing a lecture on the subject of Lovelock's results^[10], they embarked on research that resulted in the first published paper that suggested a link between stratospheric CFCs and ozone depletion in 1974 (they later shared the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work).

Main article: Gaia hypothesis

First formulated by Lovelock during the 1960s as a result of work for NASA concerned with detecting life on Mars^[11], the Gaia hypothesis proposes that living and non-living parts of the earth form a complex interacting system that can be thought of as a single organism^[12][13]. Named after the Greek goddess Gaia, the hypothesis postulates that the biosphere has a regulatory effect on the Earth's environment that acts to sustain life.

While the Gaia Hypothesis was readily accepted by many in the environmentalist community, it has not been fully accepted within the scientific community. Among its more famous critics are the evolutionary biologists Richard Dawkins and Ford Doolittle. These (and other) critics have questioned how natural selection operating on individual organisms can lead to the evolution of planetary-scale homeostasis^[14].

Lovelock has responded to these criticisms with models such as Daisyworld, that illustrate how individual-level effects can translate to planetary homeostasis. However, as Earth Systems Science is still in its infancy, it is not yet clear how well Daisyworld applies to the full complexity of the Earth's biosphere and climate.

Lovelock has become concerned about the threat of global warming from the greenhouse effect. In 2004 he caused a media sensation when he broke with many fellow environmentalists by pronouncing that "only nuclear power can now halt global warming". In his view, nuclear energy is the only realistic alternative to fossil fuels that has the capacity to both fulfill the large scale energy needs of mankind while also reducing greenhouse emissions. He is an open member of Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy.

In 2005, against the backdrop of renewed UK government interest in nuclear power, Lovelock again publicly announced his support for nuclear energy, stating, "I am a Green, and I entreat my friends in the movement to drop their wrongheaded objection to nuclear energy"^[15]. Although these interventions in the public debate on nuclear power are recent, his views on it are longstanding. In his 1988 book The Ages of Gaia he states:

"I have never regarded nuclear radiation or nuclear power as anything other than a normal and inevitable part of the environment. Our prokaryotic forebears evolved on a planet-sized lump of fallout from a star-sized nuclear explosion, a supernova that synthesised the elements that go to make our planet and ourselves."^[9]

On 30 May 2006, Lovelock told the Australian Lateline television program: "Modern nuclear power stations are useless for making bombs"^[16]. This is because the Plutonium-239 from the nuclear reactor of a power plant is contaminated with a significant amount of Plutonium-240, complicating its use in nuclear weapons^[17]. It is easier to enrich Uranium than than to separate Pu-240 from Pu-239 to produce weapons-grade material, although reactor-grade plutonium can successfully be used in weapons^[18][19]. In response, a Friends of the Earth spokesperson said: "Lovelock's claim that nuclear power plants cannot be used for weapons production is false, irresponsible and dangerous. A typical nuclear power reactor produces about 300 kilograms of plutonium each year, enough for 30 nuclear weapons"^[16].

Writing in the British newspaper The Independent in January 2006, Lovelock argues that, as a result of global warming, "billions of us will die and the few breeding pairs of people that survive will be in the Arctic where the climate remains tolerable" by the end of the 21st century^[20].

He claims that by the end of the century, the average temperature in temperate regions will increase by as much as 8°C and by up to 5°C in the tropics, leaving much of the world's land uninhabitable and unsuitable for farming, with polar cities needed. He suggests that "we have to keep in mind the awesome pace of change and realise how little time is left to act, and then each community and nation must find the best use of the resources they have to sustain civilisation for as long as they can"^[20].

He partially retreated from this position in a September 2007 address to the World Nuclear Association's Annual Symposium, suggesting that climate change would stabilise and prove survivable, and that the Earth itself is in "no danger" because it would stabilise in a new state. Life, however, might be forced to migrate en masse to remain in habitable climes^[21].

In September 2007, Lovelock and Chris Rapley proposed the construction of ocean pipes "100 to 200 metres long, 10 metres in diameter and with a one-way flap valve at the lower end for pumping by wave movement" to pump water up from below the thermocline to "fertilize algae in the surface waters and encourage them to bloom"^[22]. The intention of this scheme is to accelerate the transfer of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the ocean by increasing primary production and enhancing the export of organic carbon (as marine snow) to the deep ocean. The idea is theoretical, and the authors note that it "may fail, perhaps on engineering or economic grounds", and that "the impact on ocean acidification will need to be taken into account".

The proposal attracted widespread media attention^{[23][24][25][26]}, although also criticism^[27][28][29]. Commenting on the proposal, Corinne Le Quéré, a University of East Anglia researcher, said "It doesn’t make sense. There is absolutely no evidence that geoengineering options work or even go in the right direction. I’m astonished that they published this. Before any geoengineering is put to work a massive amount of research is needed – research which will take 20 to 30 years"^[23]. Other researchers have noted that "this scheme would bring water with high natural pCO₂ levels (associated with the nutrients) back to the surface, potentially causing exhalation of CO₂"^[29].

A similar scheme to that proposed by Lovelock and Rapley is already being developed by a commercial company^[30].

• Lovelock, James [1979] (2000). Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth, 3rd ed., Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-286218-9. 
• Lovelock, James; Michael Allaby (1983). Great Extinction. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-18011-X. 
• Lovelock, James; Michael Allaby (1984). The Greening of Mars. Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-32967-3. 
• Lovelock, James [1988] (1995). Ages of Gaia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-393-31239-9. 
• Lovelock, James [Gaia Books 1991] (2001). Gaia: The Practical Science of Planetary Medicine. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-521674-1. 
• Lovelock, James (1991). Scientists on Gaia. Cambridge, Mass., USA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-19310-8. 
• Lovelock, James (2005). Gaia: Medicine for an Ailing Planet. Gaia Books. ISBN 1-85675-231-3. 
• Lovelock, James (2000). Homage to Gaia: The Life of an Independent Scientist. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860429-7.  (Lovelock's autobiography)
• Lovelock, James (2006). The Revenge of Gaia: Why the Earth Is Fighting Back - and How We Can Still Save Humanity. Santa Barbara (California): Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-9914-4. 

• James Lovelock's personal website
• James Lovelock index page by Environmentalists For Nuclear Energy
• "Why Gaia is wreaking revenge on our abuse of the environment": Article about Lovelock published in the 'Independent'
• "Nuclear power is the only green solution": Lovelock article published in the 'Independent'
• Friends of James Lovelock
• Biography of James Lovelock
• BBC Radio interview transcript from Belief series in 2003
• Nuclear Spin page examining Lovelock's history

• Climate Change on the Living Earth, Public lecture by James Lovelock, The Royal Society, 29 October 2007.
• The Prophet of Climate Change, Jeff Goodell, Rolling Stone, 17 October 2007.
• Creel Commission: reflections on meeting James Lovelock and a recent interview with him
• Is the future nuclear? BBC News HardTalk Interview (30 minute RealVideo from July 2004)
• The whole world in our hands, Guardian Interview from September 2000
• Radio interview with James Lovelock, KQED San Francisco, September 13, 2006
• 'We should be scared stiff', The Guardian, 15 March 2007
• Audio interview from The Guardian, 4 December 2006