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Knowledge transfer in the fields of Organizational development and organizational learning, is the practical problem of getting a packet of knowledge from one part of the organization to another (or all other) parts of the organization. It is considered to be more than just a communications problem. If it were merely that, then a memorandum, an e-mail or a meeting would accomplish the knowledge transfer. Knowledge transfer is more complex because (1) knowledge resides in organizational members, tools, tasks, and their subnetworks (Argote & Ingram 2000) and (2) much knowledge in organizations is tacit or hard to articulate (Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995). The subject has been taken up under the title of Knowledge Management since the 1990's.

Argote & Ingram (1999) define knowledge transfer as "the process through which one unit (e.g., group, department, or division) is affected by the experience of another" (p 151). They further point out the transfer of organizational knowledge (i.e., routine or best practices) can be observed through changes in the knowledge or performance of recipient units. The transfer of organizational knowledge, such as best practices, can be quite difficult to achieve. ^[1]

Three related concepts are "knowledge utilization," "research utilization" and "implementation," which are used in the health sciences to describe the process of bringing a new idea, practice or technology into consistent and appropriate use in a clinical setting (Greenhalgh et al 2004). The study of knowledge utilization / implementation (KU/I) is a direct outgrowth of the movement toward evidence-based medicine and research concluding that health care practices with demonstrated efficacy are not consistently used in practice settings.

Contents 1 Challenges 2 Process 3 Practices 4 Incorrect usage 5 References 6 See also 7 External links 8 Bibliography

What complicates knowledge transfer? There are many factors, including:

• The inability to recognize & articulate "compiled" or highly intuitive competencies - tacit knowledge idea (Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995)
• geography or distance (Gailbraith 1990)
• lack of a shared/superordinate social identity (Kane, Argote, & Levine 2005)
• language
• areas of expertise
• internal conflicts (for example, professional territoriality)
• generational differences
• union-management relations
• incentives
• the use of visual representations to transfer knowledge (Knowledge visualization)
• problems with sharing beliefs, assumptions, heuristics and cultural norms.
• previous exposure or experience with something.
• misconceptions
• faulty information
• organizational culture non-conducive to knowledge sharing (the "Knowledge is power" culture)
• motivational issues
• lack of trust

Everett Rogers pioneered diffusion of innovations theory, presenting a research-based model for how and why individuals and social networks adopt new ideas, practices and products. In anthropology, the concept of diffusion also explores the spread of ideas among cultures.

• identifying the knowledge holders within the organization
• motivating them to share
• designing a sharing mechanism to facilitate the transfer
• executing the transfer plan
• measuring to ensure the transfer
• applying the knowledge transferred

• mentoring
• guided experience
• simulation
• guided experimentation
• work shadowing
• paired work
• communities of practice
• narrative transfer

Knowledge transfer is often used as a synonym for training.

1. ^ Szulanski's doctoral dissertation proposed that knowledge transfer within a firm is inhibited by factors other than a lack of incentive. How well knowledge about best practices remains broadly accessible within a firm depends upon the nature of that knowledge, from where (or whom) it comes, who gets it, and the organizational context within which any transfer occurs. Stickiness refers to a concept that derives from the difficulty of circulating fluid around an oil refinery (including effects of the fluid's native viscosity). It is worth noting that his analysis does not apply to scientific theories, where a different set of dynamics and rewards apply. Szulanski, Gabriel (1996). Exploring internal stickiness: Impediments to the transfer of best practice within the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 17, 27-43

• Institutional memory
• Instructional theory
• Knowledge Management
• Communities of practice
• Transfer of learning

• Leonard, D and Swap, w. 2005 Deep Smarts. How to cultivate and transfer enduring business wisdom. HBSP. ISBN 1-59139-528-3
• http://opensource.mit.edu/papers/Willpope.pdf
• www.teachwhatyouknow.com

• Fan, Y. (1998) "The Transfer of Western Management to China: Context, Content and Constraints", Management Learning, 29:2, 201-221
• Argote, L., P. Ingram (2000). "Knowledge transfer A Basis for Competitive Advantage in Firms." Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 82(1): 150-169.
• Galbraith, C. S. (1990). "Transferring core manufacturing technologies in high-technology firms." California Management Review 32: 56-70.
• Greenhalgh, T., G. Robert, F. Macfarlane, Bate, P., and Kyriakidou, O. (2004). "Diffusion of innovations in service organizations: Systematic review and recommendations." Milbank Quarterly 82(4): 581-629.
• Kane, A. A., L. Argote, J. Levine (2005). "Knowledge transfer between groups via personnel rotation: Effects of social identity and knowledge quality." Organizational Behavior And Human Decision Processes 96(1): 56-71.
• Nonaka, I. and H. Takeuchi (1995). The knowledge-creating company. New York, Oxford University Press.
• Szulanski, G. (1996). "Exploring internal stickiness: Impediments to the transfer of best practice within the firm." Strategic Management Journal 17: 27-43.
• Trautman, Steve (2006). "Teach What You Know: A Practical Leader's Guide to Knowledge Transfer. Addison Wesley
• Thomas H. Davenport, Laurence Prusak (2000). "Working Knowledge: How Organizations Manage What They Know." Boston Massachusettes, Havard Business School Press.