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Natural theology is that part of the philosophy of religion dealing with attempts to prove the existence of God and other divine attributes purely philosophically, that is, without recourse to any special or supposedly supernatural revelation. (The flip-side of this endeavor is sometimes referred to as "natural atheology," in which atheistic philosophers attempt to prove that God does not exist or to refute the proofs of theistic philosophers.) The expression 'natural theology' (theologia naturalis) survives in quotes of Varro by Augustine of Hippo, drawing on Stoic tradition. with reference to the deepest theological insights of the classical philosophers. Natural theology (or natural religion) is theology based on reason and ordinary experience, explaining the gods rationally, as part of the physical world.^{[citation needed]} Thus it is distinguished from revealed theology (or revealed religion) which is based on scripture and religious experiences of various kinds; and also from transcendental theology, theology from a priori reasoning (see Immanuel Kant et alia).

Natural theology was originally part of philosophy and theology, and theologians still study it; but most of its content also forms part of the philosophy of religion.

Contents 1 Key proponents 2 Bridgewater Treatises 3 See also 4 Further reading 5 External links

Marcus Terentius Varro (116-27 BC) in hisAntiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum established a distinction of three kinds of theology: mythical, civil (political) and natural (physical), of which the latter is concerned with the question "what are the gods". Varro's solution is a materialist (Epicurean) reduction of the gods to effects in the physical world (physikos)). St. Augustine of Hippo quotes Varro frequently in his De civitate Dei, translating Varro's physikos with Latin naturalis.

Plato gives the earliest surviving account of a "natural theology", in his Laws establishing the existence of the gods by rational argument. Aristoteles in his Metaphysics argues for the existence of an "unmoved mover", an argument taken up in medieval scholastics.

From the 8th century, the Mutazilite school of Islam, compelled to defend their principles against the orthodox Islam of their day, looked for support in philosophy, and are one of the first to pursue a rational theology, called Ilm-al-Kalam (scholastic theology).

English bishop Thomas Barlow wrote Execreitationes aliquot metaphysicae de Deo (1637) and spoke often of natural theology during the reign of Charles II.

John Ray (1627-1705) also known as John Wray, was an English naturalist, sometimes referred to as the father of English natural history. He published important works on plants, animals, and natural theology.

William Derham (1657-1735), was a friend and disciple of John Ray. He continued Ray's tradition of natural theology in two of his own works, The Physico-Theology, published in 1713, and the Astro-Theology, 1714. These would later help influence the work of William Paley (see below).

Thomas Aquinas is the most famous classical proponent of this approach: the Angelic Doctor's Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles both present various versions of the Cosmological argument and Teleological argument, respectively. The Ontological argument is also presented, but rejected in favor of proofs dealing with cause and effect alone.

In An Essay on the Principle of Population, the first edition published in 1798, Thomas Malthus ended with two chapters on natural theology and population. Malthus - a devout Christian - argued that revelation would "damp the soaring wings of intellect", and thus never let "the difficulties and doubts of parts of the scripture" interfere with his work. (Interestingly, Malthus' work would later be cited as inspiration by both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.)

William Paley gave a well-known rendition of the teleological argument for God. In 1802 he published Natural Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity collected from the Appearances of Nature. In this he described the Watchmaker analogy, for which he is probably best known. Searing criticisms of arguments like Paley's are found in David Hume's posthumous Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion.

Thomas Paine wrote the definitive book on the natural religion of Deism, The Age of Reason. In it he uses reason to establish a belief in Nature's Designer who man calls God. He also establishes the many instances that Christianity and Judaism require us to give up our God-given reason in order to accept their claims to revelation.

American education reformer and abolitionist, Horace Mann taught political economy, intellectual and moral philosophy, and natural theology.

Professor of chemistry and natural history, Edward Hitchcock also studied and wrote on natural theology. He attempted to unify and reconcile science and religion, focusing on geology. His major work in this area was The Religion of Geology and its Connected Sciences (Boston, 1851).

The Gifford Lectures are lectures established by the will of Adam Lord Gifford. They were established to "promote and diffuse the study of Natural Theology in the widest sense of the term— in other words, the knowledge of God." The term natural theology as used by Gifford means theology supported by science and not dependent on the miraculous.

The Earl of Bridgewater commissioned the Bridgewater Treatises:

1. The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Condition of Man, by Thomas Chalmers, D. D.
2. On The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man, by John Kidd, M. D.
3. Astronomy and General Physics considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Whewell, D. D.
4. The hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design, by Sir Charles Bell.
5. Animal and Vegetable Physiology, Considered with Reference to Natural Theology Animal and Vegetable Physiology considered with reference to Natural Theology, by Peter Mark Roget.
6. Geology and Mineralogy considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Buckland, D.D.
7. The Habits and Instincts of Animals with reference to Natural Theology, by William Kirby.
8. Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion, considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Prout, M.D.

In response to the claim in Whewell's treatise that "We may thus, with the greatest propriety, deny to the mechanical philosophers and mathematicians of recent times any authority with regard to their views of the administration of the universe", Charles Babbage published what he called The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, A Fragment. As his preface states, this volume was not part of that series, but rather his own reflections on the subject. He draws on his own work on calculating engines to consider God as a divine programmer setting complex laws underlying what we think of as miracles, rather than miraculously producing new species on a Creative whim. There was also a fragmentary supplement to this, posthumously published by Thomas Hill.

A notable critic of the Bridgewater Treatises was Edgar Allan Poe, who wrote Criticism (1850)

• Deism
• Natural magic
• Natural history
• Epicureanism
• Existence of God
• Theistic evolution
• Intelligent Design
• Creation science

• A Bridgewater Treatise for the 21st Century. Science. (Vol 301, p. 1051, 22 Aug. 2003). A review by Robert T. Pennock of philosopher of science Michael Ruse's book Darwin & Design.
• John Bascom Natural Theology (1880)
• Stanley Hauerwas With the Grain of the Universe: The Church's Witness and Natural Theology ISBN 1-58743-016-9

• Site offers an indepth look at the natural religion of Deism
• Apollos.ws A Christian site surveying arguments for the existence of God and responses to common arguments against.
• Catholic Encyclopedia article Bridgewater Treatises
• Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion by David Hume
• Babbage, Charles The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise 2nd edn. 1838, London: John Murray.