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Palaeography (British) or paleography (American) (from the Greek παλαιός palaiós, "old" and γράφειν graphein, "to write") is the study of ancient handwriting, independent of the language (Koine Greek, Classical Latin, Medieval Latin, Old English, etc.).

Palaeography is in many ways a prerequisite for philology, and it tackles two main difficulties: first, since the style of a single alphabet has evolved constantly (Carolingian minuscule, Gothic, etc.), it is necessary to know how to decipher the individual characters. Second, scribes often used many abbreviations, usually so that they could write the text more quickly, and sometimes to save space, so the palaeographer must know how to interpret them. Knowledge about individual letter-forms, ligatures, punctuation, and abbreviations, enables the palaeographer to read the text as the scribe intended it to be read.

The first time the term "palaeography" was used was perhaps in 1703 by Bernard de Montfaucon, a Benedictine monk. During the 19th century palaeography fully separates from the science of diplomatics. Wilhelm Wattenbach and Leopold Delisle greatly contributed to this separation with their studies between the relationship to the human hand and writing. Their efforts were mainly the directed at Reconstiting "the ductus" i.e. the movement of the pen in forming letter, and to establish a genealogy of writing based on the historical developments of its forms^[1].

The palaeographer must know the language of the texts, the abbreviations used, and the various styles of handwriting. Knowledge of writing materials is essential to the ancient study of handwriting and the identification of the periods in which they are written.^[2]. The fundamental work of the palaeographer is to decipher the writings of the past and to assign them a date and a place of origin. This is why the palaeographer must take into account the style and formation of the manuscript or text.^[3]

Contents 1 Ancient Near East 2 Greek palaeography 3 Aramaic palaeography 4 Latin palaeography 4.1 Antiquity 4.2 Middle Ages 4.2.1 Further medieval scripts 4.3 Modern period 5 See also 6 External links 7 Further reading 8 References

Main article: History of writing

Further information: Epigraphy

• cuneiform script
  • Hittite cuneiform
• Egyptian hieroglyphs
• Anatolian hieroglyphs
• Middle Bronze Age alphabets

Main article: History of the Greek alphabet

• Inscriptiones Graecae
• Epichoric alphabet
• Cumae alphabet

• Aramaic alphabet
• Syriac alphabet
• Mandaic alphabet
• Sogdian alphabet

Main article: History of the Latin alphabet

See the following articles:

• Old Italic alphabet
• Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
• Roman square capitals
• Roman cursive
• Rustic capitals

Prior to the time of Charlemagne several parts of Europe had their own handwriting style. His rule over a large part of the continent provided an opportunity to unify these writing styles in the hand called Carolingian minuscule. Simplistically speaking, the only scripts to escape this unification were the Visigothic (or Mozarabic), which survived into the 12th or 13th century, the Beneventan, which was still being written in the middle of the 16th, and the one that continues to be used in traditional Irish handwriting, which has been in severe decline since the early 20th century and is now almost extinct (the printed form was abolished by the Irish government in the 1950s).

In the 12th century Carolingian minuscule underwent a change in its appearance to bold and broken Gothic letter-forms. This style remained predominant with some regional variants until the 15th century when the humanistic scripts revived a version of Carolingian minuscule and it spread from the Italian Renaissance all over Europe.

• Beneventan script
• Gaelic script
• Insular script
• Merovingian script
• Uncial script
• Visigothic script

These humanistic scripts are the base for the antiqua and the handwriting forms in western and southern Europe. In Germany and Austria, the Kurrentschrift was rooted in the cursive handwriting of the later Middle Ages. With the name of the calligrapher Ludwig Sütterlin, this handwriting counterpart to the blackletter typefaces was abolished by Hitler in 1941. After World War II it was taught as alternative script in schools only in some areas until the 1970s; it is no longer being taught.

• Calligraphy
• Codicology
• Diplomatics
• Epigraphy
• Graffiti
• Historical Documents
• isograph
• Jean Mabillon
• List of New Testament papyri
• List of New Testament uncials
• Ludwig Traube (palaeographer)
• Philology
• Scribal abbreviation
• Category:Palaeographic letter variants

• 'Palaeography'. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1911.
• Palaeography: reading old handwriting 1500 - 1800: A practical online tutorial, from the National Archives (UK)
• A comprehensive survey of all the important aspects of medieval palæography.
• A scholarly maintained web directory on paleography (in German).
• Another scholarly maintained web directory on paleography (200 links with critical comments, in French).
• Comprehensive bibliography (1,200 detailed references with critical comments in French).
• Online Tuition in the Palaeography of Scottish Documents 1500-1750
• An introduction to Greek and Latin palaeography by Thompson, Edward Maunde - Outdated (published 1912) but good and useful illustrated handbook, available as Faksimile.
• Free paleographical fonts

• Bernhard Bischoff, Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1989.
• E. A. Lowe, Codices Latini Antiquiores: A Palaeographical Guide to Latin Manuscripts Prior to the Ninth Century, Clarendon Press, 1972.
• Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography Clarendon Press, 1912.

1. ^ R. Marichal, “Paleography” in New Encyclopaedia New York: Gale-Thomson, 2003 Vol.X, p. 773.
2. ^ Robert P. Gwinn, "Paleography" in The Encyclopaedia Britannica, Micropaedia, Vol. IX, 1986, p. 78.
3. ^ Fernando De Lasala, Exercise of Latin Paleography (Gregorian University Rome, 2006) p. 7.

The ISO basic Latin alphabet
Aa	Bb	Cc	Dd	Ee	Ff	Gg	Hh	Ii	Jj	Kk	Ll	Mm	Nn	Oo	Pp	Qq	Rr	Ss	Tt	Uu	Vv	Ww	Xx	Yy	Zz
history • palaeography • derivations • diacritics • punctuation • numerals • Unicode • list of letters