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Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional strategy of "active learning" that is often used in higher education, but it may also be adapted for use in K-12 education. It was pioneered and used extensively at McMaster University, Hamilton, On are:

• Learning is driven by challenging, open-ended problems.
• Students work in small collaborative groups.
• Teachers take on the role as "facilitators" of learning.

Accordingly, students are encouraged to take responsibility for their group and organize and direct the learning process with support from a tutor or instructor. Advocates of PBL claim it can be used to enhance content knowledge and foster the development of communication, problem-solving, and self-directed learning skill.

Contents 1 Problem-based learning and Cognitive Load 2 Presenting problems to learners 3 Cognitive effects of Problem based learning 4 References 5 External links 6 See also

Empirical studies have shown that active problem solving early in the learning process, is a less effective instructional strategy than studying worked examples (Sweller and Cooper, 1985; Cooper and Sweller, 1987). Certainly active problem solving is useful as learners become more competent, and better able to deal with working memory limitations. But early in the learning process, learners may find it difficult to process a large amount of information in a short amount of time. Thus the rigors of active problem solving may become an issue for novices. Most proponents of PBL deal argue that the scaffolding inherent in PBL helps avoid these issues.

Sweller (1988) proposed cognitive load theory to explain how novices react to problem solving during the early stages of learning. Sweller suggests a worked examples early, and then a gradual introduction of problems to be solved. He proposes other forms of learning early in the learning process (worked example, goal free problems, etc.); to later be replaced by completions problems, with the eventual goal of solving problems on their own (Sweller, Van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998).

Many forms of scaffolding have been implemented in PBL to reduce the cognitive load and support the learner in both problem solving and learning. As an example, consider the fading effect helps learners to slowly transit from studying examples to solving problems.

Guidance is progressively faded. [adapted from Merrill (2002)]

Problem-based learning (PBL) is typically managed with small groups of learners, accompanied by a instructor, faculty person, or facilitator. During this process, a series of problems are provided to learners with guidance early in the PBL process (with introductory problems), and then later guidance is faded as learners gain expertise (Merrill, 2002). Guidance is important early in the process as novices can spend much of their time searching for a problem solution without actually learning (Sweller, 1988).

As the process progresses, Merrill (2002) suggests changing problems by adding components to make them more realistic. Thus it is important to begin with simplified versions of real world problems to progressively add components. This progression and fading motivates learners as they slowly gain expertise and take ownership.

During the PBL process learners should discuss problems, define what they know, generate hypotheses, derive learning goals and organize further work. Results may be subsequently presented to larger groups (under guidance from an instructor). A PBL cycle should conclude with learners reflecting on the learning that has taken place.

In Problem-based learning the instructors role is to guide the learning process rather than provide knowledge (Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2006). Feedback and reflection on the learning process and group dynamics are essential components of PBL.

The acquisition and structuring of knowledge in PBL is thought to work through the following cognitive effects (Schmidt, 1993):

• initial analysis of the problem and activation of prior knowledge through small-group discussion
• elaboration on prior knowledge and active processing of new information
• restructuring of knowledge, construction of a semantic network
• social knowledge construction
• learning in context
• stimulation of curiosity related to presentation of a relevant problem

Some theories suggest that learning occurs as students collaboratively engage with concepts in meaningful problem solving. In this view, knowledge is seen as a tool for thinking and for enabling learners to participate in meaningful activity.

Problem-based learning is often referred to as a form of Inquiry-based learning (IBL), which describes an environment in which learning is driven by a process of inquiry owned by the student.

• Armstrong E: A hybrid model of problem-based learning. In: Boud D and Feletti G (editors): The challenge of problem-based learning, 137-149. London, Kogan Page, 1991
• Barr RD and Tagg J: From teaching to learning - a new paradigm for undergraduate education. Change, Nov/Dec.1995:13-25 (also available online at http://critical.tamucc.edu/~blalock/readings/tch2learn.htm )
• Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16, 235-266.
• Hmelo-Silver, C. E. & Barrows, H. S. (2006). Goals and strategies of a problem-based learning facilitator. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1. 21-39.
• Merrill, M.D. (2002). "A pebble-in-the-pond model for instructional design". Performance Improvement 41 (7): 39-44.  available at [http://www.ispi.org/pdf/Merrill.pdf]
• Schmidt HG: Foundations of problem-based learning: some explanatory notes. Medical Education 27:422-432, 1993
• Sweller, J. (1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning". Cognitive Science 12 (2): 257-285. 
• Sweller, J., Van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). "Cognitive architecture and instructional design". Educational Psychology Review 10: 251-296. 

• An introduction to PBL, resources, criticism, links
• What is PBL? - Introduction and references
• PBL materials collection
• PBL Directory
• Interdisciplinary Journal of PBL at Purdue
• Penn State's PBL Site

• project-based learning
• Educational psychology
• Inquiry-based learning
• Learning by teaching (LdL)