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Public policy is a course of action or inaction chosen by public authorities to address a problem. Public policy is expressed in the body of laws, regulations, decisions and actions of government. Policy analysis may be used to formulate public policy and to evaluate its effectiveness. Many public policy analysts earn Ph.D., Master of Public Policy and Master of Public Administration degrees in public policy schools, while others earn specialized degrees, such as an M.Ed for specializing in educational policy or an MSW for specializing in social welfare policy.

Contents 1 Various definitions 2 History of public policy 3 Public policy and science 3.1 Types of public policy 4 See also 5 External links

According to William Jenkins in Policy Analysis: A Political and Organizational Perspective (1978), a Public Policy is ‘a set of interrelated decisions taken by a political actor or group of actors concerning the selection of goals and the means of achieving them within a specified situation where those decisions should, in principle, be within the power of those actors to achieve’. Thus, Jenkins understands Public Policy making to be a process, and not simply a choice.

According to Thomas Birkland in An Introduction to the Policy Process (2001), there is a lack of a consensus on the definition of public policy. Birkland outlines a few definitions of public policy (Table 1.3 on p. 21):

• Clarke E. Cochran, et al.: "The term public policy always refers to the actions of government and the intentions that determine those actions".
• Clarke E. Cochran, et al.: "Public policy is the outcome of the struggle in government over who gets what".
• Thomas Dye: Public policy is "Whatever governments choose to do or not do".
• Charles L. Cochran and Eloise F. Malone: "Public policy consists of political decisions for implementing programs to achieve societal goals".
• B. Guy Peters: "Stated most simply, public policy is the sum of government activities, whether acting directly or through agents, as it has an influence on the life of citizens".

Birkland indicates that the elements common to all definitions of public policy are as follows (p. 20):

• The policy is made in the name of the "public".
• Policy is generally made or initiated by government.
• Policy is interpreted and implemented by public and private actors.
• Policy is what the government intends to do.
• Policy is what the government chooses not to do.

According to Birkland:

While the study of politics has a long history, the systematic study of public policy, on the other hand, can be said to be a twentieth century creation. It dates, according to Daniel McCool, to 1922, when political scientist Charles Merriam sought to connect the theory and practices of politics to understanding the actual activities of government, that is public policy." (p.4) (see McCool, Daniel C. Public Policy Theories, Models, and Concepts: An Anthology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1995.)

New Zealand Law Journal page 91; May 20, 1947: Article by L F Moller, B.C.L., B.Litt, (Oxon), LL.B. (N.Z.) SOME ASPECTS OF THE DOCTRINE OF PUBLIC POLICY. Lord Mansfield used the name "public policy" for the first time in a case, Holman v. Johnson, 2 Bing. 229; 130 E.R. 294; . The principle of public policy then was, ex dolo malo non actio. No court will lend its aid to a man who founds his cause of action upon an immoral or an illegal act.

Michael Crichton said:

• As the twentieth century drew to a close, the connection between hard scientific fact and public policy became increasingly elastic. In part this was possible because of the complacency of the scientific profession; in part because of the lack of good science education among the public; in part, because of the rise of specialized advocacy groups which have been enormously effective in getting publicity and shaping policy; and in great part because of the decline of the media as an independent assessor of fact. [1]

Philip Handler, former president of the National Academy of Sciences(1969-1981), said that "Scientists best serve public policy by living within the ethics of science, not those of politics. If the scientific community will not unfrock the charlatans, the public will not discern the difference - science and the nation will suffer." [2]

• Crime policy
• Domestic policy
• Education policy
• Energy policy
• Environmental Policy
• Foreign policy
• Healthcare policy
• National defense policy
• Public policy (law)
• Sex policy
• Social policy
• Social welfare policy

• HUD USER
• Political science
• Program evaluation
• Public administration
• Public health
• Public policy schools
• Public services
• Regulatory Barriers Clearinghouse
• Social contract
• Social welfare
• Social work

• / www.grantadvocate.com Non profit posting free resources including websites for public policy / non-profit sector jobs
• RAND Corporation
• National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration
• Policy.ca - Clearinghouse for Canadian Public Policy Articles, Organizations and Authors (Canada)
• Decision Theater - Helping policy makers in their decision making process through the use of visualization, simulation and collaboration tools.
• AARP Public Policy Institute (United States)
• The Hoover Digest
• SPACEPOL Government Policy Consulting (Canada, Nordic Countries)
• The Brookings Institute
• Global Public Policy Institute
• Graduate School of Public Policy, University of Regina
• Canadian Policy Research Networks
• The Saskatchewan Institute of Public Policy
• Institute for Research on Public Policy
• Ethics and Public Policy Center
• Institute of Local Government Studies, Birmingham, UK
• Eidos Institute, AUS
• Institute for Public Administration and Health Care Management (IPAS), Milan, Italy
• Master of Public Management, Bocconi University, Milan, Italy