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Suzerainty
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Suzerainty (pronounced /ˈsjuːzərənti/ or /ˈsjuːzəreɪnti/) is a situation in which a region or people is a tributary to a more powerful entity which allows the tributary some limited domestic autonomy to control its foreign affairs. The more powerful entity in the suzerainty relationship, or the head of state of that more powerful entity, is called a suzerain. The term suzerainty was originally used to describe the relationship between the Ottoman Empire and its surrounding regions. It differs from sovereignty in that the tributary has some (limited) self-rule. A suzerain can also mean a feudal lord, to whom vassals must pay tribute.
Although it is a concept which has existed in a number of historical empires, it is a concept that is very difficult to describe using 20th- or 21st-century theories of international law, in which sovereignty either exists or does not. While a sovereign nation can agree by treaty to become a protectorate of a stronger power, modern international law does not recognize any way of making this relationship theoretically irrevocable by the weaker power.
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- See also: List of tributaries of Imperial China
Historically, the Emperor of China saw himself as the center of the entire civilized world, and diplomatic relations in East Asia were based on the theory that all rulers of the world derived their authority from the Emperor. The degree to which this authority existed in fact changed from dynasty to dynasty. However, even during periods when political power was distributed evenly across several political entities, Chinese political theory recognized only one emperor and asserted that his authority was paramount throughout the entire world. Diplomatic relations with the Chinese emperor were made on the theory of tributary states, although in practice tributary relations would often result in a form of trade under the theory that the emperor in his kindness would reward the tributary state with gifts of equal or greater value.
This system broke down in the 18th and 19th centuries in two ways. First during the 17th century, China was ruled by the ethnically Manchu Qing dynasty which ruled a multi-ethnic empire and justified their rule through different theories of rulership. While not contradicting traditional Han Chinese theories of the emperor as universal rule, the Qing did begin to make a distinction between areas of the world which they ruled and areas which they did not. The system also broke down as China faced European powers whose theories of sovereignty were based on international law and relations between equal states.
One way European states attempted to describe the relations between the Qing Dynasty and its outlying regions was in terms of suzerainty, although this did not at all match the traditional Chinese diplomatic theory.
The claims of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China to Tibet are based on the Qing Empire having once exercised authority over Tibet and of never having renounced this authority. This is important to the Chinese governments because it establishes a history of rule over Tibet as well as providing a legal theory of Chinese rule of Tibet under international law, albeit one which is disputed by supporters of Tibetan independence.
That the Qing Empire once exercised authority over Tibet is not in doubt: the Qing Empire occupied Tibet throughout the 18th century and signed treaties with Great Britain in which Britain recognized Chinese suzerainty over Tibet. However, pro-Tibetan independence supporters argue that suzerainty does not equate with sovereignty and that Tibet therefore should not be part of China. Further complicating (or simplifying) the situation is the fact that the Qing Dynasty was not ruled, in fact, by Han Chinese, but by Manchurians, a nomadic tribe from north east of China, which, much like the Mongolian Yuan dynasty, conquered China along with vast swaths of Asia. The distinction was a real one. Indeed, many contemporary commentators, such as Fang Yizhi, complained of the imposition of non-Chinese customs enforced by the Manchurian Qing regime following their conquest of China. Moreover, the Altaic language of the Manchurians remained the official language of the empire until its overthrow in 1912, a sure indication that the Manchurian kings never saw themselves as Chinese but as their conquerors.
Following India's independence in 1947, a treaty signed between the Chogyal and the then Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru gave India suzerainty over Sikkim in exchange for it retaining its independence. This continued until 1975, when the Sikkimese monarchy was abrogated in favour of a merger into India. Sikkim is now one of the states of India.
India no longer looks after the external, defence, communications, and foreign affairs of Bhutan. However India provides substantial support to the Royal Bhutan Army and guarantees its support against external aggression. This is one of several situations in international politics where two sovereign states agree to have the more powerful administer the defense of the weaker.[citation needed]
Located in the Arabian Sea, Lakshadweep is a Union Territory of India off the coast of the south western state of Kerala. The Amindivi group of islands (Amini, Kadmat, Kiltan, Chetlat and Bitra) came under the rule of Tipu Sultan in 1787. They passed on to British control after the Third Anglo-Mysore War and were attached to the South Canara district. The rest of the islands became a suzerainty of the Arakkal family of Cannanore in return for a payment of annual tribute. After a while, the British took over the administration of those islands for non-payment of arrears. These islands were attached to the Malabar district of the Madras Presidency. In 1956, the States Reorganisation Act separated these islands from the mainland administrative units, forming a new union territory by combining all the islands.
After the First Boer War (1880–81), the South African Republic was granted its independence, albeit under British suzerainty. During the Second Boer War (1899–1902), the South African Republic was annexed as the Colony of the Transvaal, which existed until 1910, when it became the Province of Transvaal in the Union of South Africa.
The capital city of the United States, Washington, D.C. is granted a limited form of home rule in which an elected city council and mayor operate the city of Washington and District of Columbia County, but the city is constitutionally under the control and authority of the U.S. Congress. As such, Congress has veto power over municipal legislation and has final approval of the city's budget. This means that the U.S. Congress as a body politic is suzerain to the District of Columbia, as its officials do not have local control over their affairs except to the limited extent Congress chooses to grant it to them. For example, in U.S. states the State Defense Forces are under the control of the Governor of that state; in the District of Columbia the mayor does not have authority over the D.C. National Guard, that authority being held by the President of the United States.
The United States currently is responsible for the defense of the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands and Republic of Palau, but those are organized under the Compact of Free Association and can be revoked by either party at any time, at least in theory.
In modern geopolitics, it is common for larger countries to look after the defense and foreign relations of nearby smaller countries, as in the case of the preceding countries in free association with the United States. Usually, this differs from traditional suzerainty in that the lesser party retains the right to abrogate the arrangement following a referendum. Some prominent examples include:
- Italy/San Marino
- Italy/Vatican City
- France/Monaco
- France/Andorra
- Spain/Andorra
- Switzerland/Liechtenstein
- New Zealand/Niue
- New Zealand/Cook Islands
- New Zealand/Tokelau
- Australia/Nauru
- England/Isle of Man until 1765
- Garver, John W. Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century. Seattle: U of Washington P, 2001.