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This article is about tempering in metallurgy. For other uses of the word, see temper.

Tempering is a heat treatment technique for metals and alloys. In steels, tempering is done to "toughen" the metal by transforming brittle martensite into bainite or ferrite. Precipitation hardened alloys, like many grades of aluminum and superalloys, are tempered to precipitate intermetallic particles which strengthen the metal.

In metallurgy, there is always a tradeoff between ductility and brittleness. This delicate balance highlights many of the subtleties inherent to the tempering process. Precise control of time and temperature during the tempering process are critical to achieve a metal with well balanced mechanical properties.

Contents 1 Tempering in steel 2 Tempering in precipitation hardened alloys 3 Tempering in blacksmithing 4 See also 5 External link

Typically steel is heat treated in a multi-step process. First it is heated to create a solid solution of iron and carbon in a process called austenizing. Austenizing is followed by quenching to produce a martensitic microstructure. The steel is then tempered by heating it in the range of 400-600 degrees Celsius. The steel is held at that temperature until the carbon trapped in the martensite diffuses to produce either bainite, or pearlite (a crystal structure formed from a mixture of ferrite and cementite). In banitic steels, upper banite or lower banite may form depending on the length and temperature of the tempering process. It is thermodynamically improbable that the martensite will be totally converted during tempering, so a mixture of martensite, bainite, ferrite and cementite is often formed.

Before a precipitation hardened alloy can be tempered, it must be "solutionized". During solutionizing, the alloy is heated to dissolve and uniformly distribute alloying elements. The alloy is then quenched at a rate of cooling high enough to prevent the alloying elements from falling out of solution. The alloy is then tempered, by heating at temperatures lower than the solutionizing temperature.

During tempering, the alloying elements will diffuse through the alloy and react to form intermetallic compounds. The intermetallic compounds are not soluble in the alloy, and will precipitate, forming small particles. These particles strengthen the metal by impeding the movement of dislocations through the crystal structure of the alloy. Careful manipulation of tempering time and temperature allows the size and amount of precipitates to be controlled, thus tailoring the mechanical properties of the alloy.

Tempering in aluminum is also referred to as "aging". Artificially aged alloys are tempered at elevated temperature, while naturally aging alloys may be tempered at room temperature.

Alloy systems with a large number of alloying elements, like some superalloys may be subjected to several tempering operations. During each operation a different precipitate is formed, resulting in a large number of different precipitates that are difficult to drive back into solution. This phenomenon contributes to the high temperature strength of precipitation hardened superalloys.

The temperatures used in tempering are often too low to be gauged by the color of the workpiece. In this case, the blacksmith will heat the work piece for a known amount of time, perhaps the length of time it takes him to sing a familiar song. Doing this ensures a certain degree of repeatability in the tempering process from work piece to work piece. The cumulative effects of time and temperature can also be gauged by monitoring the color of the oxide film formed while tempering a well-polished blade.

• Annealing (metallurgy) - slow cooling process
• Forge
• Heat treatment
• Precipitation strengthening

• A thorough discussion of tempering processes