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Translatio imperii, Latin for "transfer of rule", is a concept invented in the Middle Ages for describing history as a linear development: a succession of transfers of power from one supreme ruler (emperor) to the next.

Jacques Le Goff^[1] describes the "translatio imperii" concept as typical for the Middle Ages for several reasons: the idea of linearity of time and history was typical for the Middle Ages; the "translatio imperii" idea typically also neglected simultaneous developments in other parts of the world (of no importance to medieval Europeans); the "translatio imperii" idea didn't separate divine history from the history of worldly power: medieval Europeans considered divine (supernatural) and material things as part of the same continuum, which was their "reality". Also the causality of one reign necessarily leading to its successor was often detailed by the medieval chroniclers, and is seen as a typical medieval approach.

Not surprisingly, each medieval author described the "translatio imperii" as a succession leaving the supreme power in the hands of the monarch ruling the region of the author's provenance:

• Otto of Freising (living in German region): Rome → Byzantium → Franks → Longobards → Germans (=Holy Roman Empire);
• Chrétien de Troyes (living in medieval France): Greece → Rome → France^[2]
• Richard de Bury (England, 14th century): "Athens" (Greece) → Rome → "Paris" (France) → Great Britain

Contents 1 A detailed translatio imperii succession (ending in Russia) 1.1 Start: Roman Empire 1.2 Holy Roman Empire 1.3 Fourth Crusade 1.4 Ottoman Empire 1.5 Third Rome 2 Miscellaneous 3 References

The Roman Empire was founded in 27 BC by Augustus Caesar. In 395, at the death of the Emperor Theodosius I, the empire was split in half with each governed by a co-emperor ruling in Rome (actually in Milan, from 402 Ravenna) and Constantinople (New Rome). The Western half fell to barbarian armies in 476. The eastern half, now known as the Byzantine Empire, continued to call itself the Roman empire despite only holding Rome intermittently until 751 and not at all in the period following. The Byzantine emperors and state claimed to be the successor of the Roman empire.

In 800, the pope crowned Charlemagne Roman Emperor. This set off a constitutional crisis as the Byzantines did not recognize the coronation. In order to settle the dispute, Byzantine Empress Irene offered to marry Charlemagne. Though she was unable to marry him after being overthrown and exiled, the offer itself was considered to be translatio imperii. The imperium supposedly passed to Charlemagne's successors and eventually landed in the Holy Roman Empire. This explains the Roman component of the Empire's name. The Holy Roman Emperors thus thought of themselves as being in direct succession of the ancient Roman Augusti and were bolstered in their claim, specifically against the Kings of France who might also claim lineage from Charlemagne, by papal crownings. After 1508, Holy Roman Emperors no longer were crowned by the pope and were thus technically emperors-elect. In 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved.

In 1204, the Fourth Crusade split the Byzantine Empire into four states that claimed Roman imperium: the Latin Empire of Constantinople, the Despotate of Epirus, the Empire of Trebizond, and the Empire of Nicaea. The Nicaeans forced Epirus to submit and crushed the Latins. After retaking Constantinople, the Nicaeans restored the Byzantine Empire but Trebizond remained independent and held onto their claim of the Roman imperial throne.

• Empire of Nicaea (1204–1261) — The legitimate Byzantine throne in exile. Restored the Byzantine Empire in 1261. The Nicaean line would rule until 1453.
• Latin Empire of Constantinople (1204-1261) — Crusader state, pretenders abandoned imperial title in 1383 while in exile.
• Despotate of Epirus (1204–1359) — Second despot claimed title 1227–1230. Became vassal of Nicaea in 1248.
• Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461) — Splinter state that claimed imperium. Conquered by Ottomans in 1461.

In 1453, the Ottoman Empire conquered the Byzantine Empire. Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II took the title of Roman Emperor. He extinguished Trebizond in 1461. The Ottoman monarchy was abolished in 1922.

In 1472, Sophia Paleologue, niece of the last Byzantine emperor, married Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow. Through this link, Russia claimed to be the Third Rome. The Russian monarchy was overthown in 1917.

Napoleon I claimed himself as a successor to the Romans and Charlemagne (as opposed to the French kings of the ancien regime). His empire was an attempt to mimic the Roman Empire and he was responsible for forcing the Holy Roman Empire to dissolve with the Treaty of Lunéville.

With the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th and 20th centuries, some groups had encouraged the recreation of the ancient Roman Empire. The most serious attempt was Mussolini's New Roman Empire which rested its legitimacy on geography and imitation rather than translatio imperii.

1. ^ Le Goff, Jacques. La civilisation de l'Occident médieval. Paris. 1964; English translation (1988): Medieval Civilization, ISBN 0-631-17566-0 – "translatio imperii" is discussed in Part II, Chapter VI, section on "Time, eternity and history".
2. ^ De Troyes, Chrétien. Cligès. Circa 1176.