From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermentation of grape juice.^[1] The natural chemical balance of grapes is such that they can ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes or other nutrients.^[2] Although other fruits like apples and berries can also be fermented, the resultant "wines" are normally named after the fruit from which they are produced (for example, apple wine or elderberry wine) and are generically known as fruit or country wine. Others, such as barley wine and rice wine (e.g. sake), are made from starch-based materials and resemble beer more than wine, while ginger wine is fortified with brandy. In these cases, the use of the term "wine" is a reference to the higher alcohol content, rather than production process.^[3] The commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.^[4] Wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using various types of yeast which consume the sugars found in the grapes and convert them into alcohol. Various varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are used depending on the types of wine produced.^[5]

Wine has a long history dating back about 8,000 years and is thought to have originated in present day Georgia or Iran.^[6][7] Wine is thought to have appeared in Europe about 6,500 years ago in present-day Bulgaria and Greece and was very common in classical Greece and Rome. Wine has also played an important role in religion since ancient times. The Greek God Dionysos and the Roman God Liber represented wine. Wine has also played an important role in ceremonies in the Catholic and Jewish religions such as Mass and Kiddush.

The word "wine" derives from the Proto-Germanic *winam, an early borrowing from the Latin vinum, "wine" or "(grape) vine", itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European stem *win-o- (cf. Ancient Greek οῖνος oînos).^[8] Similar words for wine or grapes are found in the Semitic languages (cf. Arabic ﻭﻳﻦ wayn) and in Georgian (ğvino), and the term is considered an ancient wanderwort.^[9]

Contents 1 History 2 Grape varieties 3 Classification 4 Vintages 5 Tasting 6 Collecting 7 Production 7.1 Exporting countries 8 Uses 8.1 Religious uses 9 Health effects 10 Packaging & Storage 11 Professions 12 Film and television 13 References 14 Further reading 15 See also

Main article: History of wine

Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest wine production came from sites in Georgia and Iran, dating from 6000 to 5000 BC.^[10][11] The archaeological evidence becomes clearer, and points to domestication of grapevine, in Early Bronze Age sites of the Near East, Sumer and Egypt from around the third millennium BC.^[12]

The very oldest known evidence suggesting wine production in Europe and second oldest in the world comes from archaeological sites in Greece and is dated to 6,500 years ago.^[13][14][15] The same archaeological sites in Greece also contain remnants of the world’s earliest evidence of crushed grapes.^[16] In fact, several Greek sources as well as Pliny the Elder describe how the ancient Greeks used partly dehydrated gypsum before fermentation and some type of lime after fermentation to reduce acidity. The Greek writer Theophrastus is actually the oldest known source to describe this aspect of Greek wine making.^[17][18]

In Egypt, wine became a part of recorded history, playing an important role in ancient ceremonial life. Wine was possibly introduced into Egypt by the Ancient Greeks.^[19] Traces of wine were also found in China, dating from the second and first millennium BC^[20]

Wine was common in classical Greece and Rome.^[21] The Ancient Greeks introduced vines such as Vitis vinifera^[22] and made wine in their numerous colonies in Italy,^[23] Sicily,^[24] southern France,^[25] and Spain.^[22] Dionysus was the Greek god of wine and revelry, and wine was frequently referred to in the works of Homer and Aesop. Many of the major wine producing regions of Western Europe today were established by the Romans.^[26] Wine making technology improved considerably during the time of the Roman Empire. Many grape varieties and cultivation techniques were known. Barrels were developed for storing and shipping wine.^[26]

Since Roman times, wine (potentially mixed with herbs and minerals) was assumed to serve medicinal purposes as well. During Roman times it was not uncommon to dissolve pearls in wine for better health. Cleopatra created her own legend by promising Marc Anthony she would "drink the value of a province" in one cup of wine, after which she drank an expensive pearl with a cup of wine.^[18] Another medieval application was the use of snake-stones (banded Agate resembling the figural rings on a snake) dissolved in wine against snake bites, which shows an early understanding of the effects of alcohol on the central nervous system in such situations.^[18]

In medieval Europe, the Christian Church was a staunch supporter of wine which was necessary for the celebration of the Catholic Mass. In places such as Germany, beer was banned and considered pagan and barbaric while wine consumption was viewed as civilized and a sign of conversion.^[27] Wine was also forbidden in the Islamic civilization, but after Geber and other Muslim chemists pioneered the distillation of wine, it was used for other purposes, including cosmetic and medical uses.^[28] In fact the 10th century Persian philosopher and scientist Al Biruni described a number of recipes where herbs, minerals and even gemstones are mixed with wine for medicinal purposes. Wine was so revered and its effect so feared that elaborate theories were developed which gemstone-cups would best counteract its negative side effects.^[18]

Main article: List of grape varieties

Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species, Vitis vinifera. When one of these varieties, such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, or Merlot, for example, is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75 or 85%) the result is a varietal, as opposed to a blended wine. Blended wines are in no way inferior to varietal wines; some of the world's most valued and expensive wines from the Bordeaux, Rioja or Tuscany regions are a blend of several grape varieties of the same vintage.

Wine can also be made from other species or from hybrids, created by the genetic crossing of two species. Vitis labrusca, Vitis aestivalis, Vitis rupestris, Vitis rotundifolia and Vitis riparia are native North American grapes, usually grown for eating in fruit form or made into grape juice, jam, or jelly, but sometimes made into wine, eg. Concord wine (Vitis labrusca species).

Hybrids are not to be confused with the practice of grafting. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North American species rootstock. This is common practice because North American grape species are resistant to phylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine. In the late 19th century, Europe's vineyards were devastated by the bug, leading to massive vine deaths and eventual replanting. Grafting is done in every wine-producing country of the world except for the Canary Islands, Chile and Argentina, which have not been exposed to the insect.^[29]

The variety of grape(s), aspect (direction of slope), elevation, and topography of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, the climate and seasonal conditions under which grapes are grown, and the local yeast cultures all together form the concept of "terroir." The range of possibilities lead to great variety among wine products, which is extended by the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes. Many small producers use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir.^[30]

However, flavor differences are not desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency is more important. Producers will try to minimize differences in sources of grapes by using wine making technology such as micro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin film evaporation, and spinning cone.^[31]

Main article: Classification of wine

Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in various regions of the world. France has an appellation system which ranges from Vin de Table ("table wine"), through Vin de Pays and Vin Délimité de Qualité Superieure (VDQS) up to Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC)^[32] and which is based on the concept of terroir ^[33] (or region of origin) and wine quality. Like France, Portugal also has a govermental classificassion, based on the region of the grapes and the quality of the wine. Portugal is also pioneer in the creation of the DOC ("Denominação de Origem Controlada" or AOC in Portuguese) by creating the Demarcated Douro Region and a system regulating its wine production and trade, by a royal charter in the year of 1756 [1].Germany developed a similar system in 2002^[34] though this has not yet developed the authority of the French system.^[35] Spain^[36] and Italy also have a classification which is based on a dual system of region of origin and quality of product.^[37] New World wine, that is wines from outside of the traditional wine growing regions of Europe, tend to be classified by grape rather than by quality or region of origin, though there have been subjective attempts to classify by quality,^[38] most successfully by Langton's.^[39]

Wines are usually named either by their grape variety or by their place of production. Generally speaking, European wines are named both after the place of production (e.g. Bordeaux, Rioja, Chianti, Cotnari) and the grapes used (e.g. Pinot, Riesling, Chardonnay, Merlot). Wines from everywhere except Europe are generally named for the grape variety. More and more, however, market recognition of particular regions and wineries is leading to their increased prominence on non-European wine labels. Examples of recognized locales include: Margret River, Napa Valley, Barossa Valley, Willamette Valley, Cafayate, Marlborough, Walla Walla,Douro etc.

Some blended wine names are marketing terms, and the use of these names is governed by trademark or copyright law, rather than a specific wine law or a patent on the actual varietal blend or process used to achieve it. For example, Meritage (pronounced to rhyme with "heritage") is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, and may also include Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, and Malbec, while the dôle is made from the Pinot Noir and Gamay grapes. Use of the term Meritage is protected by licensing agreements by The Meritage Association.

Main article: Vintage

A vintage wine is one made from grapes that were all, or primarily, grown in a single specified year, and are accordingly dated as such. Variations in a wine's character from year to year can include many subtle color, palate, nose, body and aging differences. Many wines, particularly good quality red table wines, can improve in flavor with age if properly stored.^[40] Consequently, it is not uncommon for wine enthusiasts and traders to save bottles of an especially good vintage wine for future consumption. Most countries allow a vintage wine to include a portion of wine that is not from the labeled vintage.

In the United States for a wine to be vintage dated (and labeled with a country of origin or American Viticultural Area (AVA), such as "New Zealand" or "Napa Valley") it must contain at least 95% of its volume from wines harvested in that year.^[41] If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA, such as "Napa County", it must contain at least 85% of its volume from wines harvested in that year.^[41]

Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each and every bottle will have a similar taste. Climatic factors can have a dramatic impact on the character of a wine to the extent that different vintages from the same vineyard can vary dramatically in flavor and quality.^[42] Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages, from reputable producers and regions, will often fetch much higher prices than their average vintages. Some vintage wines are only made in better-than-average years.

Non-vintage wines can be blended from a number of vintages for consistency, a process which allows wine makers to keep a reliable market image and also maintain sales even in bad vintage years.^[43][44]

Recent research suggests vintage year may not be as significant to wine quality as currently thought^[45], though wine connoisseurs continue to place a great importance on vintage.

Main article: Wine tasting

Wines may be classified by their primary impression on the drinker's palate. They are made up of chemical compounds which are similar or identical to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. The sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine. Dry wine, for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar.

Specific flavors may also be sensed, due to the highly complex mix of organic molecules such as esters and terpenes that grape juice and wine can contain. Tasters will also distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape (e.g., Cabernet Sauvignon and blackcurrant) and flavors that are imparted by other factors in wine making, either intentional or not. The most typical intentional flavor elements in wine are those that are imparted by aging in oak casks, and virtually every element of chocolate, vanilla, or coffee is actually a factor of oak and not the native grape.^[46]

Banana flavors (isoamyl acetate) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are spoilage aromas such as sweaty, barnyard, band-aid (4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol),^[47] and rotten egg (hydrogen sulfide).^[48] Some varietals can also have mineral flavor, due to the fact that some salts are soluble in water (as limestone), and thus absorbed by the vine.

Wine aroma is the result of the interaction between components of the grapes and those produced during winemaking process, fermentation and aging.^[49] Being served at room temperature increases the vaporization of aroma compounds, making the wine more aromatic. For some red wines that are already highly aromatic, like Chinon and Beaujolais, the volatility of the wine makes it better served chilled.^[50]

At the highest end, rare, super-premium wines are amongst the most expensive of all food, and outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle. Such wines are considered by some as Veblen goods. The most common wines purchased for investment include Bordeaux, cult wines and Port. The reasons for these choices over thousands of other products and regions are:

1. They have a proven track record of holding well over time.
2. Their plateau drinking window (the period for maturity and approachability) is of many, many years, when the taster will be able to enjoy the wine at its best.
3. There is a record of quality and consensus amongst experts as to the uniqueness of the wines.

Investment in fine wine has attracted a number of fraudsters who play on fine wine's exclusive image and their clients' ignorance of this sector of the wine market.^[51] Wine fraud scams often work by charging excessively high prices for the wine, while representing that it is a sound investment unaffected by economic cycles. Like any investment, proper research is essential before investing. False labeling is another dishonest practice commonly used.

Main articles: List of wine producing countries and List of wine-producing regions

Wine production by country 2005^[52]

Rank	Country (with link to wine article)	Production (tonnes)
1	France	5,329,449
2	Italy	5,056,648
3	Spain	3,934,140
4	United States	2,232,000
5	Argentina	1,564,000
6	China	1,300,000
7	Australia	1,274,000
8	South Africa	1,157,895
9	Germany	1,014,700
10	Chile	788,551
11	Portugal	576,500
12	Romania	575,000

Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between thirty and fifty degrees north or south of the equator. The world's most southerly vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's South Island near the 45th parallel,^[53] and the most northerly is in Flen, Sweden, just above the 59th parallel.^[54]

The 15 largest exporting nations (2005 figures) – Italy, France, Spain, Australia, Chile, the United States, Germany, South Africa, Portugal, Romania, Moldova, Bulgaria, Hungary, Croatia and Argentina. California produces about 90% of the wine in the United States. In 2000, Great Britain imported more wine from Australia than from France for the first time in history.

Top ten wine exporting countries in 2005 Rank Country Hectolitres ×1000 1 Italy 15,100 2 Spain 14,439 3 France 13,900 4 Australia 7,019 5 Chile 4,209 6 United States 3,482 7 Germany 2,970 8 South Africa 2,818 9 Portugal 2,800 10 Moldova 2,425 TOTAL 78,729

2003 Export market shares Rank Country Market share 1 France 22% 2 Italy 20% 3 Spain 16% 4 Australia 8% 5 Chile 6% 6 United States 5% 7 Portugal 4% 8 Germany 4%

Wine is a popular and important beverage that accompanies and enhances a wide range of European and Mediterranean-style cuisines, from the simple and traditional to the most sophisticated and complex. Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a beverage, but as a flavor agent (primarily in stocks and braising) in which its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes. Red, white and sparkling wines are the most popular, and are also known as light wines, because they only contain approximately 10-14% alcohol. (Alcohol percentages are usually by volume.) The apéritif and dessert wines contain 14-20% alcohol, and are fortified to make them richer and sweeter than the light wines.

The labels on certain bottles of wine suggest that they need to be set aside for an hour before drinking to breathe, while other wines are recommended to be drunk as soon as they are opened. Decanting is a controversial subject in wine. In addition to aeration, decanting removes some of the bitter sediments from the bottle. Sediment is more common in older bottles but younger wines benefit more from the aeration.^[55]

During aeration, the exposure of younger wines to air often "relaxes" the flavors and makes them taste smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Wines that are older generally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration.^[56] Breathing, however, does not benefit all wines, and should not therefore be taken to the extreme. In general, wine should be tasted as soon as it is opened to determine how long it may be aerated, if at all.

See also: Kosher wine, Christianity and alcohol, and Islam and alcohol

The use of wine in religious ceremonies is common to many cultures and regions. Libations often included wine, and the religious mysteries of Dionysus involved wine as a sacrament of entheogen.

Wine plays an integral part of Jewish laws and traditions. The Kiddush, a blessing said before starting the first and second Shabbat or festival meals and Havdallah, a blessing said after the Shabbat or festival are required to be said over wine if available. On Pesach (Passover) during the Seder, it is also required to drink four cups of wine.^[57] In the Tabernacle and in the Temple in Jerusalem, the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service.^[58] A blessing over wine said before indulging in the drink is: "Baruch atah Adonai elohaynu melech ha-olam, boray p’ree hagafen" (Praised be the Eternal, Ruler of the universe, who makes the fruit of the vine).

In Christianity, wine or grape juice is used in a sacred rite called the Eucharist, Lord's Supper, or Communion, which originates in Gospel accounts of the Last Supper when Jesus shared bread and wine with his disciples and commanded his followers to "do this in remembrance of me." Beliefs about the nature of the Eucharist vary between denominations, with Roman Catholics believing that the bread and wine are miraculously changed into the real body and blood of Christ.

Wine was used in the rite by all Protestant groups until an alternative arose in 1869. Methodist minister-turned-dentist Thomas Bramwell Welch applied new pasteurization techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of grape juice. The substitution of grape juice for wine spread quickly over much of the United States in Protestant rites, although the beverage is usually called wine in accordance with scriptural references. ^[59] Some Christians who were part of the growing temperance movement pressed for a switch from wine to grape juice. There remains an ongoing debate between some American Protestant denominations as to whether wine can or should be used in moderation for the Eucharist or as a regular beverage.

The use of wine is forbidden under Islam. Iran used to have a thriving wine industry that disappeared after the Islamic revolution in 1979.^[60]

Red table wine Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 80 kcal   360 kJ
Carbohydrates     2.6 g - Sugars  0.6 g Fat 0.0 g Protein 0.1 g Alcohol 10.6 g
10.6 g alcohol is 13 vol%. 100 g wine is 100 mL (3.4 fl oz.) Sugar and alcohol content can vary. Source: USDA Nutrient database

See also: Alcohol consumption and health

The health effects of wine (and alcohol in general) are the subject of considerable ongoing study.^[61] In the USA, a boom in red wine consumption was initiated in the 1990s by '60 Minutes', and other news reports on the French paradox. The French paradox refers to the lower incidence of coronary heart disease in France than in the USA despite high levels of saturated fat in the traditional French diet. Epidemiologists suspect that this difference is attributed to the high consumption of wines by the French, however this suspicion is based on limited scientific evidence.

Population studies have observed a J curve association between wine consumption and the risk of heart disease.^[62] This means that abstainers and heavy drinkers have an elevated risk, whilst moderate drinkers have a lower risk.^[63] Population studies have also found that moderate consumption of other alcoholic beverages may be cardioprotective, though the association is considerably stronger for wine. These studies have found a protective effect from both red wine as well as white wine, though evidence from laboratory studies suggests that red wine may possess superior health benefits including prevention of cancer due to the fact red wine contains more polyphenols than white wine due to the production process.^[64]

A chemical called resveratrol is thought to be at least partly responsible for red wines' health benefits, as it has been shown to exert a range of both cardioprotective as well as chemoprotective mechanisms in animal studies.^[65] Resveratrol is produced naturally by grape skins in response to fungal infection, which includes exposure to yeast during fermentation. As white wine has minimal contact with grape skins during this process, it generally contains lower levels of resveratrol.^[66] Other beneficial compounds in wine include other polyphenols, antioxidants, and flavonoids.^[67]

Red wines from South of France (Bordeaux, Cotes du Rhone and Bourgogne) and Sardinia Italy have been found to have the highest levels of procyanidins - the compounds in grape seeds responsible for making red wine good for the heart. Wines from France and Sardinia have between two and four times as much procyanidins as other red wines. Procyanidins suppress the synthesis of a peptide called endothelin-1 that constricts blood vessels.^[68]

A 2007 study found that both red and white wines are effective anti-bacterial agents against strains of Streptococcus.^[69] Interestingly, wine has traditionally been used to treat wounds in some parts of the world.^[70]

Whilst evidence from both laboratory studies as well as epidemiology (observational studies) suggests wines' cardioprotective effect, no evidence from controlled experiments - of which long-term studies are still ongoing - currently exists to determine the specific effect of wine or other alcohol on the risk of developing heart disease or stroke. Moreover, excessive consumption of alcohol including wine can cause some diseases including cirrhosis of the liver and alcoholism.^[71] Also the American Heart Association cautions people "not to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation".^[72]

Based on the UK unit system for measuring alcoholic content, the average bottle of wine contains 9.4 units.^[73]

Sulphites Sulphites are present in all wines and are formed as a natural product of the fermentation process. Additionally, many wine producers add sulphur dioxide in order to help preserve the wine. The level of added sulphites varies, and some wines have been marketed with low sulphite content. ^[74]

Sulphites in wine are not a problem for most people, although some people, particularly people with asthma, can experience adverse reactions to them. Sulphur Dioxide is also added to many other foods though, for example in dried apricots and Orange Juice.

See also: Cork (material), Alternative wine closures, Wine bottle, and Box wine

Most wines are sold in glass bottles and are sealed using a cork. Recently a growing number of wine producers have begun sealing their product with alternative closures such as screwcaps or synthetic plastic "corks." Some wines are packaged in heavy plastic bags, which are typically packaged further within cardboard boxes, similar to the packaging of breakfast cereal. One advantage of boxed-wine is that it can stay fresh for up to a month after opening, while bottled wine will start to oxidize immediately after opening. The contents of boxed wine are typically accessed via a tap on the side of the box. In addition to being less expensive, alternative closures prevent cork taint, although alternative closures can also cause other types of wine spoilage.

Wine cellars offer the opportunity to protect alcoholic beverages from potentially harmful external influences, providing darkness and a constant temperature. Wine is a natural, perishable food product. Left exposed to heat, light, vibration or fluctuations in temperature and humidity, all types of wine, including red, white, sparkling, and fortified, can spoil. When properly stored, wines not only maintain their quality but many actually improve in aroma, flavor, and complexity as they mature.

• Cooper: Someone who makes wooden barrels, casks, and other similar wooden objects.
• Négociant: A wine merchant who assembles the produce of smaller growers and winemakers, and sells them under his own name. Sometimes, this term is simply a synonym for wine merchant.
• Vintner: A wine merchant or producer.
• Sommelier: A person in a restaurant who specializes in wine, and is usually in charge of assembling the wine list, staff education and making wine suggestions to customers
• Winemaker: A person who makes wine. May or may not be formally trained.
• Garagista: One who makes wine in a garage (or basement, or home, etc.) An amateur wine maker. Also used in a derogatory way, when speaking of small scale operations of recent inception, or without pedigree(ie. small scale winemakers of Bordeaux).
• Oenologist: Wine scientist or wine chemist, student of oenology. A winemaker may be trained as oenologist, but often instead uses a consultant oenologist
• Viticulturist: A person who specializes in the science of the grapevines themselves. Can also be someone who manages a vineyard (decides how to prune, how much to irrigate, how to deal with pests, etc.)

• A Good Year, 2006. Ridley Scott directs Russell Crowe in an adaptation of Peter Mayle's novel.
• Mondovino, USA/France 2004: A documentary film directed by American film maker, Jonathan Nossiter, explaining the impact of globalization on the various wine-producing regions.
• Sideways, 2004: A comedy/drama film, directed by Alexander Payne, with the tagline: "In search of wine. In search of women. In search of themselves." Wine, particularly Pinot Noir, plays a central role.
• A Walk in the Clouds 1995, is a love story set in a traditional vineyard showcasing different moments in the production of wine.
• French Kiss, 1995. Meg Ryan and Kevin Kline act in this romantic comedy. Kline's character wants to have his own vineyard since he comes from a family of winemakers. The character has even made his own aroma sampling kit.
• Falcon Crest, USA 1981-1990: A CBS primetime soap opera about the fictional Falcon Crest winery and the family who owned it, set in the fictional Tuscany Valley of California. The series was very popular and a wine named Falcon Crest even went on the market.
• Crush, USA 2007:Produced & Directed by Bret Lyman. A documentary short that explores the 2006 grape harvest and crush in California's wine country. Features Winemaker Richard Bruno.
• The Judgement of Paris, USA 2008: film currently in production; story based on journalist George M. Taber's account of the Paris Wine Tasting of 1976.
• Bottle Shock, USA 2008?: film currently in production; story about the birth of the Napa wine industry.
• Oz & James Great Wine Adventure, UK: "Wine ponce" Oz Clark tries to teach motor head James May about wine. The fist series saw them traveling in a classic Jaguar through the wine regions of France and the second series saw them in a recreational vehicle traveling through California.

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